Factors Affecting Selection of Type of

Dam
Whenever it is decided to construct a dam, the first question that one face is which type of
dam will be most suitable and most economical? Following are the factors affecting
selection of dam site by dam type.
1. Topography
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions
3. Availability of materials
4. Spillway size and location
5. Earthquake zone
6. Height of the Dam
7. Other factors such as cost of construction and maintenance, life of dam, aesthetics etc.
Factors Affecting Selection of Dam
These factors are discussed one by one.
Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.
1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam
Geological and Foundation Conditions
Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the
foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations generally
encountered are
1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost every kind
of dam can be built on such foundations.
2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.
3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity
dams.
4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of
gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after
special treatments can be built.
Availability of Materials
Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In order to
achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be available locally or at
short distances from the construction site.
Spillway Size and Location
spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on
the magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important
on rivers and streams with large flood potential.
Earthquake Zone
If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake forces. The
type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams
and concrete gravity dams.
 Height of Dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For greater
heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.

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mega-projects

What causes glaciers?

Glaciers form when the snow accumulating on land from one winter does not melt before the next winter's
snow arrives. This causes a layering of each year's snow on top of all the previous years' snow. Over many
years, this layering can build up to great depths (about 2 miles deep at the South Pole). The Earth's largest
ice sheets, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, are glaciers. In contrast, though, most of the Earth's
glaciers are small, some covering less than a square mile.

Because of the influence of the Earth's gravity, large glaciers flow slowly downhill, like a giant river of cold
molasses. If they reach the ocean, chunks will occasionally break off (calve) and fall into the ocean. These
pieces then become 'icebergs'. Some icebergs from the Antarctic ice cap are huge - as large as the state of
Rhode Island.

The rate at which the glacier flows downhill is controlled by many things: how much snow adds to the
glacier each winter, the slope of the land, the kind of rock that the glacier flows over, etc. It is not unusual
for glaciers to "surge", with rapid movement in some years.

Most of the world's glaciers that are monitored have receded in the last century or more, presumably in
response to a slow warming of the climate system. The extent to which this warming is anthropogenic
(human-caused) versus natural is the subject of much debate. The fact that glaciers have receded before,
though, is evidenced by currently receding glaciers revealing old tree stumps, in both Western Canada and
in Europe.

Interesting facts:

A GLACIER ON THE EQUATOR? As unliky as it might seem, in the hot tropical African country of Tanzania,
there is a glacier at the top of Mount Kilimanjaro. The air is cold enough at the altitude of this peak (over
19,000 feet) so that precipitation often falls as snow, and helps maintain the glacier. You can learn more
about the Kilimanjaro glacier here. While the Kilimanjaro glacier has also been receding, recent research
suggests that this has been due to changing precipitation patterns and deforestation, rathrt than to global
warming
How are glaciers formed?

Kahiltna Glacier is a long mountain glacier, into which several tributary

glaciers flow. —Credit: Photographer unknown. 1942. Kahiltna Glacier: From the Glacier Photograph Collection.
Boulder, Colorado USA: National Snow and Ice Data Center. Digital media.

Glaciers begin to form when snow remains in the same area year-round, where enough snow
accumulates to transform into ice. Each year, new layers of snow bury and compress the
previous layers. This compression forces the snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size
and shape to grains of sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the
grains get smaller, causing the snow to slowly compact and increase in density. After about two
winters, the snow turns into firn—an intermediate state between snow and glacier ice. At this
point, it is about two-thirds as dense as water. Over time, larger ice crystals become so
compressed that any air pockets between them are very tiny. In very old glacier ice, crystals can
reach several inches in length. For most glaciers, this process takes more than a hundred years.

Types of Earthquakes &

Faults
There are four different types of earthquakes:
Tectonic, volcanic, collapse and explosion.
 o A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when the earth's
crust breaks due to geological forces on rocks and
adjoining plates that cause physical and chemical changes.
o A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from
tectonic forces which occur in conjunction with volcanic
activity.
o A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines that are caused by seismic
waves produced from the explosion of rock on the surface.
o An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that is the result
of the detonation of a nuclear and/or chemical device.

There are three different types of faults:

Normal, Reverse, and Transcurrent (Strike-
Slip).
o Normal faults form when the hanging wall drops down.
The forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides
apart, or extensional.
o Reverse faults form when the hanging wall moves up. The
forces creating reverse faults are compressional, pushing
the sides together.
o Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults have walls that move
sideways, not up or down.

There are many different types of earthquakes: tectonic, volcanic, and

explosion. The type of earthquake depends on the region where it occurs and
the geological make-up of that region. The most common are tectonic
earthquakes. These occur when rocks in the earth's crust break due to
geological forces created by movement of tectonic plates. Another
type,volcanic earthquakes, occur in conjunction with volcanic
activity. Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in underground
caverns and mines, and explosion earthquakes result from the explosion of
nuclear and chemical devices. We can measure motion from large tectonic
earthquakes using GPS because rocks on either side of a fault are offset
during this type of earthquake.

What are the types of earthquakes?

Earthquakes can come in three main forms, depending on the plate movements that
occur beneath the earth's surface. They could occur on a Convergent Boundary,
Divergent Boundary or a Transform Fault.

Convergent boundary:
Here, one plate is forced over another plate during movement creating a thrust fault.

Divergent boundary:
Here, plates are forced apart each other, usually forming a Rift Zone. This kind is
common in ocean floors where new floors are created. An example is the Mid Atlantic
Ridge.

Transform fault:
Unlike divergent and convergent, the plates here slip by each other. This is also
called Strike-Slip.

Earthquake Waves
There are 2 types of earthquakes waves and the difference lies in the way the seismic
waves are transmitted. To understand this better, let us see what a seismic wave is.

These are waves of energy that travel through the earth's layers, and other elastic
layers, often as a result of earthquakes. A wave, by general definition is the transfer of
energy from one place to another without transferring solid, liquid or gas matter.
Examples include light and sound waves.
During an earthquake, the waves released may be “P” or “S” waves depending on the
speed and ways in which they travel.

P-Waves (Primary Waves)

P-waves are longitudinal in nature. The vibrations are along the same direction as the
direction of travel. It is also known as compressional waves. P-waves travel faster than
S-waves.

S-Waves (Secondary waves)

Here the waves travel at right angles to the direction of travel. They are also known as
transverse waves and example include water waves.

With this in mind, you will notice that if you are close to the point where an earthquake
struck, you will feel both P and S waves close within the same time frame. If you are
further away, you will feel the P-wave first and then the S-wave a bit later.

Both waves can be destructive, but their study helps us to know where the earthquake
struck.

What is a Tsunami?

This is simply a series of massive ocean waves, triggered by an earthquake that has
occurred in the sea (or ocean). The displaced water then runs ashore and into the land.
This happens when the plates underneath the Earth's surface move (focus) so that one
slips under another.

Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions.

Water level can rise as high as 100ft, even though it can look like only a foot or two
from above. The water moves at incredible speed (500 miles per hour) towards land,
with phenomenal destructive power. The speed of the water picks up as it travels.

Tidal waves differ from tsunamis. Tidal waves are usually in circular motion. Tsunamis
are a lot different. The water moves with a flat surface and has a lot of speed and
power.

Researchers believe that most tsunamis, (80%), happen within the Pacific Ocean’s
“Ring of Fire,” a geologically active area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes and
earthquakes common.

During a tsunami, your best bet for safety is to move to higher ground.
https://www.slideshare.net/izimalik/glaciers-and-its-types

What types of glaciers are there?

Mountain glaciers

Variegated Glacier is a valley glacier that winds through the Saint Elias
Mountains in Alaska, terminating near Yakutat Bay. —Credit: Photograph by Austin Post. 1965. Variegated
Glacier: From the Glacier Photograph Collection. Boulder, Colorado USA: National Snow and Ice Data Center.
Digital media.

These glaciers develop in high mountainous regions, often flowing out of icefields that span
several peaks or even a mountain range. The largest mountain glaciersare found in Arctic
Canada, Alaska, the Andes in South America, and the Himalaya in Asia.

Valley glaciers

Commonly originating from mountain glaciers or icefields, these glaciers spill down valleys,
looking much like giant tongues. Valley glaciers may be very long, often flowing down beyond
the snow line, sometimes reaching sea level.

Tidewater glaciers

As the name implies, these are valley glaciers that flow far enough to reach out into the
sea. Tidewater glaciersare responsible for calving numerous small icebergs, which although
not as imposing as Antarctic icebergs, can still pose problems for shipping lanes.
Piedmont glaciers

A classic tidewater glacier, Lamplugh Glacier terminates in a small

embayment in Alaska's Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. —Credit: Photograph by William Osgood Field.
1941. Lamplugh Glacier: From the Glacier Photograph Collection. Boulder, Colorado USA: National Snow and Ice
Data Center. Digital media.

Piedmont glaciers occur when steep valley glaciers spill into relatively flat plains, where they
spread out into bulb-like lobes. Malaspina Glacier in Alaska is one of the most famous examples
of this type of glacier, and is the largest piedmont glacier in the world. Spilling out of the
Seward Icefield, Malaspina Glacier covers about 3,900 square kilometers (1,500 square miles) as
it spreads across the coastal plain.

Hanging glaciers

When a major valley glacier system retreats and thins, sometimes the tributary glaciers are left in
smaller valleys high above the shrunken central glacier surface. These are called hanging
glaciers. If the entire system has melted and disappeared, the empty high valleys are
called hanging valleys.

Cirque glaciers

Cirque glaciers are named for the bowl-like hollows they occupy, which are called cirques.
Typically, they are found high on mountainsides and tend to be wide rather than long.

Ice Aprons

These small, steep glaciers cling to high mountainsides. Like cirque glaciers, they are often wider
than they are long. Ice aprons are common in the Alps and in New Zealand, where they often
cause avalanches due to the steep inclines they occupy.
Rock Glaciers

This satellite image shows the Larsen Ice Shelf, Antarctica, in 1998, four
years before the shelf disintegrated. Taken at the beginning of the Antarctic winter, the ice shelf is clearly
visible. Notice that sea ice is forming over the ocean to the right the ice shelf. —Credit: NSIDC, data from the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

Rock glaciers sometimes form when slow-moving glacial ice is covered by debris. They are
often found in steep-sided valleys, where rocks and soil fall from the valley walls onto the ice.
Rock glaciers may also form when frozen ground creeps downslope.

Ice shelves

Ice shelves occur when ice sheets extend over the sea and float on the water. They range from
a few hundred meters to over 1 kilometer (0.62 mile) in thickness. Ice shelves surround most of
the Antarctic continent.

Icefields

Icefields are similar to ice caps, except that their flow is influenced by the underlying
topography, and they are typically smaller than ice caps.

Ice caps

Ice caps are miniature ice sheets, covering less than 50,000 square kilometers (19,305 square
miles). They form primarily in polar and sub-polar regions that are relatively flat and high in
elevation.
Ice streams

The Southern Patagonian Ice Field spans the border between Argentina
and Chile and covers 12,363 square kilometers (4,773 square miles). —Credit: NASA

Ice streams are large ribbon-like glaciers set within an ice sheet—they are bordered by ice that
is flowing more slowly, rather than by rock outcrop or mountain ranges. These huge masses of
flowing ice are often very sensitive to changes such as the loss of ice shelves at their terminus
or changing amounts of water flowing beneath them. The Antarctic ice sheet has many ice
streams.

Ice sheets

Found now only in Antarctica and Greenland, ice sheetsare enormous continental masses of
glacial ice and snow expanding over 50,000 square kilometers (19,305 square miles). The ice
sheet on Antarctica is over 4.7 kilometers (3 miles) thick in some areas, covering nearly all of the
land features except the Transantarctic Mountains, which protrude above the ice. Another
example is the Greenland Ice Sheet. In the past ice ages, huge ice sheets also covered most of
Canada (the Laurentide Ice Sheet) and Scandinavia (the Scandinavian Ice Sheet), but these have
now disappeared, leaving only a few ice caps and mountain glaciers behind.

What is Stratigraphy?

Stratigraphy- The branch of geology that seeks to understand the geometric

relationships between different rock layers (called strata), and to interpret the
history represented by these rock layers.
Public Domain Image by the US Dept. of Interior.

Contact- A boundary that separates different strata or rock units.

Steno's Laws of Stratigraphy

Image from J. P. Trap: berømte danske mænd og kvinder, 1868

Nicholas Steno (1638-1686) was a Danish-born pioneer of geology, and is

considered to be the father of stratigraphy.

Nicholas Steno's observations of rocks layers suggested that geology is not

totally chaotic. Rather, the rock layers preserve a chronological record of
Earth history and past life.

He developed three fundamental principles of stratigraphy, now known

as Steno's Laws:

1) Law of Original Horizontality– Beds of sediment deposited in water form

as horizontal (or nearly horizontal) layers due to gravitational settling.
2) Law of Superposition– In undisturbed strata, the oldest layer lies at the
bottom and the youngest layer lies at the top.

3) Law of Lateral Continuity– Horizontal strata extend laterally until they thin
to zero thickness (pinch out) at the edge of their basin of deposition.

Other Important Principles of Stratigraphy

4) Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships– An event that cuts across existing

rock is younger than that disturbed rock. This law was developed by Charles
Lyell (1797-1875).

5) Principle of Inclusion– Fragments of rock that are contained (or included)

within a host rock are older than the host rock.
 Unconformities

Unconformity – A surface that represents a very significant gap in the

geologic rock record (due to erosion or long periods of non-deposition).

There are 3 main types of unconformities:

1) Disconformity – A contact representing missing rock between sedimentary

layers that are parallel to each other. Since disconformities are parallel to
bedding planes, they are difficult to see in nature.

2) Angular Unconformity – A contact in which younger strata overlie an

erosional surface on tilted or folded rock layers. This type of unconformity is
easy to identify in nature.
Image provided by FCIT. Original image from Textbook of Geology by Sir Archibald Geikie
(1893).

3) Nonconformity – A contact in which an erosion surface on plutonic or

metamorphic rock has been covered by younger sedimentary or volcanic rock.

4) Paraconformity- A contact between parallel layers formed by extended

periods of non-deposition (as opposed to being formed by erosion). These
are sometimes called "pseudounconformities").

Unconformities VS Bedding Planes

Unconformities represent huge gaps in time! The nonconformity between the

Vishnu Schist and overlying sedimentary layers in the Grand Canyon
represents 1.3 billion years of missing rock record.

Bedding planes, or planes separating adjacent sedimentary layers, also

represent gaps in the rock record but on a much smaller scale than an
unconformity.

Relative Age Dating

Relative age dating is a way to use geometric relationships between rock

bodies to determine the sequence of geologic events in an area. Relative
dating is different from absolute dating in which specific dates are assigned
to geologic events (we will discuss absolute dating techniques later).

Relative dating is based on the five principles of stratigraphy discussed above.

Historical Perspective on the Origin of Rocks: Werner's Concept of

Neptunism

Abraham Werner (1749-1817), a German geologist, proposed that Earth’s

crust originated in ocean water through the process of precipitation. This idea
became known as Neptunism, in reference to the Roman God of the sea.

Werner classified rocks into 4 categories, as shown in the diagram below:

Figure by RJR

1. Primitive rock (red)– Granite and metamorphic rock were precipitated from
oceans.

2. Transition rock (light brown)– Next, fossil-rich sedimentary rocks were

precipitated. These rocks are tilted due to deposition on the non-horizontal
surfaces of primitive rocks. This aspect of Werner's model was useful for
explaining the origin of tilted sedimentary rocks.

3. Secondary rock (dark brown)– Flat lying sedimentary rocks were

eventually precipitated. The secondary rocks were thought to include
interlayered basalts, which Werner thought formed by combustion of buried
coal layers.

4. Tertiary (or alluvial) rock (yellow)– Finally, after the ocean receded,
recent erosion and deposition created a thin veneer of overlying sediment.

Today we know that Werner's basic assumption that granite precipitated from
seawater is incorrect. We also know that basalt is not the product of coal
combustion.

Nevertheless, Werner's concept of Neptunism was influential because:

1) Werener was right that some sedimentary rocks, such as limestones, do

precipitate from ocean water.
2) Werner was not a catastrophist and did not need to make his interpretation
of rock layers consistent with scriptual teachings.

3) Werner’s relative age assignments represents an early attempt to

determine Earth's sequential history.

Historical Perspective on the Origin of Rocks: Hutton's Concept of

Plutonism

The Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726-1797) argued that granite and
basalt by solidification within the earth (as opposed to precipitating in from
oceanwater). This idea is known as Plutonism, in reference to the God of the
deep underworld.

This concept of plutonism was supported by basalt melting/cooling

experiments Sir James Hall conducted in 1792. These experiments showed
that the basalts form by the solidification of liquid magma.
Hutton viewed tilted strata as having been initially deposited horizontally, and
then were subsequently deformed (tilted and folded) by the forces of Earth's
internal heat engine. He would argue that these forces gave rise to
mountains.

Furthermore, he suggested that the mountains eroded to produce the

sedimentary rocks we find in the rock record.

Hutton viewed the earth continually recycling itself with a balance between
destruction and rejuvenation. Mountains are created, eroded, and reformed.

Hutton’s ideas were not well received by people in the early 1800’s because
he was a poor writer, and because his science was anti-catastrophic and did
not support the scriptures.

https://www.slideshare.net/wwlittle/principles-of-stratigraphy

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

While rocks consist of aggregates of minerals, minerals themselves are made up of one
or a number of chemical elementswith a definite chemical composition. Minerals
cannot be broken down into smaller units with different chemical compositions in the
way that rocks can. More than two thousand three hundred different types of minerals
have been identified. Luckily many are rare and the common rocks are made up of a
relatively small number of minerals.

Identifying the common minerals

Since minerals are the building blocks of rocks, it is important that you learn to identify
the most common varieties. Minerals can be distinguished using various physical and/or
chemical characteristics, but, since chemistry cannot be determined readily in the field,
geologists us the physical properties of minerals to identify them. These include features
such as crystal form, hardness(relative to a steel blade or you finger
nail), colour, lustre, and streak (the colour when a mineral is ground to a powder). More
detailed explanations of these terms and other aspects of mineral identification may be
found in field handbooks or textbooks. Generally the characteristics listed above can only
be determined if the mineral grains are visible in a rock. Thus the identification
key distinguishes between rocks in which the grains are visible and those in which the
individual mineral components are too small to identify.
The six commonest minerals
The six minerals olivine, quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene and amphibole are the
commonest rock-forming minerals and are used as important tools in classifying rocks,
particularly igneous rocks. Except for quartz, all the minerals listed are actually mineral
groups. However, instead of trying to separate all the minerals which make up a group,
which is often not possible in the field, they are dealt with here as a single mineral with
common characteristics.
Quartz: Quartz is a glassy looking, transparent or
translucent mineral which varies in colour from
white and grey to smoky. When there are
individual crystals they are generally clear, while in
larger masses quartz looks more milky white.
Quartz is hard - it can easily scratch a steel knife
blade. In many rocks, quartz grains are irregular in
shape because crystal faces are rare and quartz
does not have a cleavage (ie, it does not break on
regular flat faces).

Feldspar: Feldspar is the other common, light-

coloured rock-forming mineral. Instead of being
glassy like quartz, it is generally dull to opaque
with a porcelain-like appearance. Colour varies
from red, pink, and white (orthoclase) to green,
grey and white (plagioclase). Feldspar is also hard
but can be scratched by quartz. Feldspar in igneous
rocks forms well developed crystals which are
roughly rectangular in shape, and they cleave or
break along flat faces. The grains, in contrast to
Orthoclase quartz, often have straight edges and flat
rectangular faces, some of which meet at right
angles.
 Plagioclase

Mica: Mica is easily distinguished by its

characteristic of peeling into many thin flat smooth
sheets or flakes. This is similar to the cleavage in
feldspar except that in the case of mica the
cleavage planes are in only one direction and no
right angle face joins occur. Mica may be white and
pearly (muscovite) or dark and shiny (biotite).

Pyroxene: The most common pyroxene mineral

is augite. Augite is generally dark green to black in
colour and forms short, stubby crystals which, if
you look at an end-on section, have square or
rectangular cross-sections.

Amphibole: The most common amphibole

is hornblende. Hornblende is quite similar to
augite in that both are dark minerals, however
hornblende crystals are generally longer, thinner
and shinier than augite and the mineral cross-
sections are diamond-shaped.
 Olivine: Olivine, or peridot in the jewellery trade, is
yellow-green, translucent and glassy looking.
Crystals are not common; it usually occurs as
rounded grains in igneous rocks or as granular
masses. Olivine is almost as hard as quartz; it does
not have a well-developed cleavage.

Quartz and feldspar are light-coloured minerals; mica, pyroxene, amphibole and olivene
are dark-coloured. The colour of a rock will be determined by the proportions of light and
dark-coloured minerals present. If most of the grains are quartz and feldspar then the
overall appearance of the rock will be light, while the opposite will be true if the minerals
are mainly mica, pyroxene, amphibole or olivine. The colour of a rock with between 25
and 50% dark minerals is intermediate.

Other common rock-forming minerals

Calcite: Calcite is a very common mineral in sedimentary rocks. It is commonly white to
grey in colour. Individual crystals are generally clear and transparent. Calcite is softer
than quartz and can be scratched easily by a steel knife blade. In a rock, calcite grains are
often irregular to rhomb-like in shape. Calcite's major distinguishing characteristic
though is its vigorous reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid. Dolomite is very similar to
calcite but does not react well with acid unless powdered first.
Clays: Clay minerals are very fine grained and difficult to tell apart in the field. They can
vary in colour from white to grey, brown, red, dark green and black. Clays are plastic and
often sticky when wet; they feel smooth when smeared between the fingers.
Magnetite: Magnetite is common in igneous and metamorphic rocks, and some
sediments, though usually in only small amounts (1 - 2 %). It is black in colour with a
metallic lustre, occurring in small octahedra (like two pyramids stuck together). Easily
recognized by its strongly magnetic character.
Pyrite: The commonest of the sulphide minerals, i.e. those minerals containing sulphur
as a principle component. It occurs in all rock types, though usually only in small
amounts. It is a pale brassy yellow in colour with a metallic lustre and often forms cube-
shaped crystals. Also known as "fool's gold".
Talc: Talc occurs in granular or foliated masses
sometimes known as soapstone. It is white to green,
sometimes grey or brownish. It is very soft and will
be scratched by a finger nail. It has a greasy feel

Top

Rock-forming Minerals
Introduction
Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which is usually
solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-
forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide valuable insight
into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to ascertain the age of a rock. Common
accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite, titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaques.

The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the
elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust: oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The composition of minerals
formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the parent body. For
example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and pyroxene (as
found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and
quartz (as found in granite). It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar
bulk chemistry unlike its own; thus it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an
aluminium-poor rock such as a quartzite.

Physical properties of minerals

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are used to
differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from one particular
property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria outlined below. A hand
lens will assist you greatly.

Colour
Colour is one of the most obvious characteristic of a mineral, but generally not the most useful
diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in a vast variety
of colours. For example, ruby and sapphire are differently coloured types of the mineral corundum
(Al2O3). The red colour of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium. Sapphires may
come is a vast variety of colours; blue is the most familiar colour, but yellow, orange, green, pink,
orange and brown varieties are also known. Garnets may also come in a large range of colours,
depending on their composition. They can be found with virtually any colour, although blue
garnets are exceptionally rare. It is therefore advisable not to rely on colour alone to identify a
mineral.

Crystal habit
Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or an
aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as “euhedral”; for
example garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may also occur as aggregates of crystals; for
example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine fibres. The following list gives
examples of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that may exhibit each
habit.

Acicular - needle-like, e.g. natrolite, rutile

Bladed - blade-like, slender and flattened, e.g. kyanite

Botryoidal - grape-like masses, e.g. hematite, malachite

Columnar - long, slender prisms, e.g. calcite, gypsum

Cubic - cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite, galena, halite

Dendritic - tree-like, branching in multiple directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native copper, native silver

Fibrous - very slender prisms, e.g. asbestos, tremolite

Foliated or lamellar - layered structure, parts easily into very thin sheets, e.g. muscovite, biotite

Granular - aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite, scheelite

Hexagonal - six-sided, e.g. quartz, hanksite

Massive - no distinct shape, e.g. turquoise, realgar

Octahedral- eight-sided, e.g. diamond, magnetite

Platy - flat, tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite

Prismatic - elongate, prism like, e.g. tourmaline, beryl

Radial or stellate - radiating outwards from a central point, star-like, e.g. wavellite, pyrophyllite

Acicular habit (rutile) Botryoidal habit (malachite) Cubic habit (pyrite)

Fibrous habit (sillimanite) Foliated habit (biotite) Hexagonal habit (sapphire)

Massive habit (realgar) Platy habit (wulfenite) Prismatic habit

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is commonly
measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by ten minerals, where each mineral can scratch
those with a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can scratch everything below it on the
Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz (hardness 5) can scratch calcite
(hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).
Scale Number Indicator Mineral Common Objects

1 Talc

2 Gypsum Fingernail

3 Calcite Copper coin

4 Fluorite

5 Apatite Knife blade

6 Orthoclase Window glass

7 Quartz Steel file

8 Topaz

9 Corundum

10 Diamond
Streak
The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of the mark it leaves behind after being rubbed
against a piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a good example of how streak works.
While this mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in hand sample, its streak is always a dark
blood-red. Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample, but has a green-black streak.
Streak can be used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of 7 or less, as minerals with a hardness
greater than 7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.

Lustre
Lustre refers to the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light, and is controlled by the
kinds of atoms present and their bonding. It is described by the following terms

Adamantine - diamond-like lustre; such minerals are usually transparent and have a high
refractive index; e.g. diamond, cerussite, cubic zirconia

Dull or earthy - no reflections; e.g. kaolinite

Greasy - the appearance of being coated with an oily substance; may also be greasy to the touch;
e.g. opal

Pearly - the whitish iridescence of materials such as pearls; e.g. stilbite

Vitreous - like glass; e.g. calcite, quartz, beryl

Silky - like silk fabric; e.g. satin spar (a variety of gypsum)

Resinous - like a resin; e.g. fire opal

Metallic - metal-like in appearance; e.g. pyrite

Adamantine lustre (diamond) Resinous lustre (fire opal)

Cleavage
Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each mineral, have a characteristic arrangement.
Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these atoms cause planes of weakness in the crystal
structure. Cleavage is an indication of how well a mineral breaks along these planes of weakness,
and may be a good diagnostic characteristic. Cleavage may be described as “perfect”, ”good”,
“distinct” or ”poor”. In transparent minerals or in thin sections viewed though a microscope,
cleavage may be seen as a series of parallel lines.

The number of cleavage planes in a mineral may also aid its identification. Cleavage typically
occurs in either one, two, three, four or six directions. Micas easily split along their one plane of
cleavage to form thin sheets. Amphiboles exhibit two cleavage planes. Iceland spar, a variety of
calcite, cleaves readily along three planes of weakness into distinctive rhombs. Galena breaks
along three cleavage planes producing cubic fractions. Fluorite and diamond show cleavage in four
directions. Sphalerite exhibits cleavage in six directions. Not every mineral displays cleavage. For
example, quartz does not have a weakness in its crystal structure, and therefore does not exhibit
cleavage. When a quartz specimen is broken with a hammer, it displays conchoidal (shell-like)
fracture.
Calcite has three cleavage planes.