Earthquakes

Example:
Earthquake

● called seismic slip

● violent shaking of the ground due to
seismic activity
Creep

● called aseismic slip

● slow displacement of fault
● much smoother in motion
Faults
● break between two chunks of rock
● this area allows movement that can cause
earthquakes

How do they form?

● Stress between layers produces new faults

Elastic rebound
● a scenario where rocks snap back elastically to their previous position after
releasing energy
Elastic rebound theory
● explanation for how energy is spread during earthquakes
● As rocks on opposite sides of a fault are subjected to force and shift, they
accumulate energy and slowly deform until their internal strength is exceeded.
Focus (Hypocenter) Epicenter
● point on a fault where the first ● the point directly on top of the
motion occurs focus,
● the origin of an earthquake ● felt on Earth’s surface
Earthquakes are Characterized by their
Focal depth

0-70 km Shallow

70-350 km Intermediate

350-700 km Deep
Terms in faults

Strike - the orientation of the break Dip - the angle of the fault, how steep
the slope of the plane is
Types of faults
Strike-slip faults - horizontal Dip-slip faults - vertical
movement of faults movement
Types of Dip-slip faults
a. Normal fault - movement of rocks by b. Reverse fault - rocks compress
tension with each other
Thrust faults
● causes overlapping layers
● characterized by its shallow slope
Earthquake Locations

The locations of major earthquake

epicenters are concentrated in linear belts.

Earthquakes occur in the lithosphere, where

rocks are elastic and capable of storing
energy.
Subduction Subduction zones

● means to descend or go ● places where two lithospheric

underground plates come together, one
riding over the other
Subduction zones in the Philippines
Manila Trench Philippine Trench
Outcomes of Subduction
Sierra Madre
Examples of outcome due to subduction
is the Sierra Madre mountain range in
the right side of Luzon, which spans
more than 500 km.

How was it formed?

Sierra Madre

The Sierra Madre mountain range formed

through the process of subduction and thrust
faults.

Since the mountain range is close to the

subduction zone, earthquakes are likely to occur
in this location.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Subduction
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Creation of natural resources 1. Causes disasters such as
2. Release of carbon emissions earthquakes, tsunamis, and
which keeps the Earth’s volcanic eruptions
atmosphere warm 2. Rising of sea levels
3. Creation of new land masses
4. Keeps the plates moving
What will happen if the subduction process stops?

● Plates will not move

● Earth’s atmosphere will decrease in temperature
● Stronger earthquakes and volcanic eruptions will occur
Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity

Seismic waves
● carries the stored-up energy
from the focus
● travels through Earth’s layers
Types of Seismic Waves

Body waves
● travels in the mantle of the Earth

a. P (Primary) waves - compressional waves

● Can travel through solids and liquids
● First waves to hit a seismograph
● Shakes the material it travels to along the
direction it goes
Types of Seismic Waves

b. S (Secondary) waves - shear

waves
● Only travels through solids
● The second wave to hit a
seismograph
● Shakes the material it travels to,
perpendicular to its direction
Why S waves cannot travel on liquids?
Types of Seismic Waves

c. Surface waves - causes

displacement of rocks and soil in the
surface
● Can travel in a vertical or
horizontal motion
● Causes the most destruction as it
is in the surface
Two Types of Surface Waves
a. Love wave - horizontal motion that moves the surface from side to side
perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling
Two Types of Surface Waves
b. Rayleigh wave
● cause the ground to shake in an elliptical pattern
● This motion is similar to that observed in ocean waves.
● Seismologists - study earthquakes by using seismometers and by observing the damage that was caused by the
earthquake
● Seismometer - internal part of the seismograph, which may be a pendulum or a mass mounted on a spring
 ● Seismograph - instrument used to record the motion of the ground during an earthquake and is installed
on the ground to create a seismographic network

Seismographs can already detect an

earthquake so what is the purpose of a
seismographic network?

Because seismographs can only measure

movement in one direction, many
seismograph stations have multiple
seismographs to record the north-south,
east-west, and vertical motions of the ground
How do seismologists determine the exact origin of an earthquake?

Earthquake Triangulation - is a method of

calculating distance from each seismometer
to the earthquake. The location where all the
circles intersect is the location of the
earthquake epicenter.
Ground Motion

Movements along the fault lines are obvious hazards. Even the slightest offset of the
ground can cause tremendous damage to the structures around it. Possible
disturbances may include damage to buildings, bridges, breakage of pipes,
disconnection of power lines, and many others.
Ground Motion

1906 San Francisco Earthquake

Maximum strike-slip distance

Displacement across the
San Andreas Fault was more than
6 meters.
San Andreas Fault
Risk Reduction

To reduce the risk of ground movement,

careful planning and design is necessary.
Concepts such as power lines and pipes built
with a little more slack when they cross fault
zones, or even using material that allows
some give, to let them stretch when
necessary.
Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Survived the 2002 Denali
Fault earthquake that had
A magnitude of 7.9
Ground Shaking

One of the most common effects of earthquakes, it is produced as a result of

accumulated energy and is released through seismic waves. This may be a cause of
damage to surrounding structures, most of which is caused by the surface waves.
Even minor shifts of a few centimeters could be catastrophic, especially to weak
structures. Naturally, the longer the shaking takes place, the more damage is to be
expected; with the most severe damage being near the fault lines itself.
Constantinople

The ancient city of what we now know as

Istanbul has been leveled by earthquakes
throughout its history. It has been rebuilt many
times through history.
Earthquake Resistant Buildings

● Experiments and scale models

● Building Codes
● Observing security footage during earthquakes
● Japan and US joint experiment on a seven-storey building
● Consider what the structure will be built on
● Note the characteristics of the ground
Earthquake Resistant Buildings
Problems Encountered in Earthquake Resistant Buildings

● Limited records that show how the ground moves during earthquakes, due to
sensitive instruments needing to survive being close to fault lines
● Even with good data, there are still many uncertainties and variables that
simulations cannot guarantee authentic conditions
● Building codes cannot be the same everywhere
● Aftershocks
● Duration
Earthquake-Resistant, Substantial Life Safety, or Damage Control?
Earthquake-Resistant, Substantial Life Safety, or Damage Control?
Ground Failure

The term ground failure is a general reference to landslides, liquefaction, lateral

spreads, and any other consequence of shaking that affects the stability of the
ground.
Landslides

Landslides, also known as land

slips, are several forms of mass
wasting that may include a wide
range of ground movements, such
as rock falls, deep-seated slope
failures, mudflows, and debris
flows
Landslides

Landslides can be a serious secondary

hazard to an earthquake as earthquakes are
one of the major events that trigger
landslides. The best solution is not to build
on prone areas. Detailed engineering and
study can help determine which regions to
avoid. Visible signs of previous landslides is a
tell-tale sign to avoid the dangerous areas.
Liquefaction

An effect of ground shaking may cause liquefaction

when the ground is very wet, or in areas near the
coast. Loosely packed, water clogged sediments on
the ground lose strength in response to ground
shaking, almost like quicksand. When this happens,
buildings and other things topple over and even
partially sink as the soil has no strength to support
them.
Liquefaction

Nigata, Japan (1964)

 Liquefaction

Kobe

Loma Prieta

Izmit
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

In the coastal areas, Tsunamis (or Tidal

Waves or Harbor Waves) are another
effect that earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions may cause. They are massive
waves (or series of waves) that displaces
water in very large volumes that usually
crash into shorelines. There are many
misconceptions about tsunamis however.
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

Misconceptions:

● Though being referred to as ‘Tidal Waves’, the tides do not affect tsunamis
● Tsunamis are not seen to immediately topple ocean liners in a single sweep
● It is a singular wave
● You cannot avoid Tsunamis
● You are safe when you grab hold of a solid object
● Only the shoreline is not safe
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

1960 Chile Earthquake

Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

Since tsunamis move at such a fast speed, not much can be done to warn those near
the epicenter of the earthquake. Those who reside a long distance away however can
be warned to evacuate.
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

After a devastating tsunami in Hawaii in 1948,

the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey established
the Tsunami Early Warning System in Hawaii. In
the Pacific region the data is gathered from a
system of stations and disseminated to the
surrounding areas. Only in 2004 did systems
appear in the Indian Ocean, while none for the
Caribbean.
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects

The December 2004 Sunda Trench earthquake

ruptured a 400 km length of the southern Burma
Plate, but aftershocks—only a few epicenters of
which are shown here—affected the whole plate.
Fire

Fire is another secondary hazard for

earthquakes. In some cases it may even do more
damage than the ground shaking. Fires occur due
to fuel lines, gas trucks, and power lines
touching, igniting flames and fueling the fire
throughout the area. During moments like these,
fire rescue are hindered causing the flames to
spread.
Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting

Millions of people already live near major fault zones. For that reason, prediction of
major earthquakes could result in many saved lives. Some progress has been made in
this direction, but as the complexity of seismic activity is more fully recognized, initial
optimism has been diminished considerably.
Seismic Gaps
There are areas of big faults with little or no seismic activity, whereas tiny earthquakes continue along
other sections of the fault zone, according to maps of earthquake epicenter locations. Seismic gaps are
areas of otherwise active fault zones that are quiet or inert.
Seismic Gaps
These represent “locked” sections of faults that currently does not move due to friction, however they
may “unlock” and be the sites of serious massive earthquakes. Recognising these gaps may possibly help
identify areas that large earthquakes may occur in.
Seismic Gaps
The 1989 Loma Prieta, California,
earthquake occurred in what had been a
seismic gap along the San Andreas fault. A
major seismic gap along the subduction zone
along the western side of Central America is
likely to be the site of the next major
earthquake to cause serious damage to
Mexico City.
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction

During the early stages of its conception, earthquake prediction relied heavily on
earthquake precursor phenomena. These were signs that may give effective warning
about an impending earthquake. Many signs were observed from inspecting the
ground surface, seismic waves, rock and soil properties, water levels, animal
behaviors, and even radiation.
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction

Studying these precursors hoped to provide a concrete way to identify patterns to

predict earthquakes. Unfortunately, the studies were unreliable in the end, as many
parameters and variables were were too varied to base of the data, some large
earthquakes seem to occur without any precursors at all. Currently the search for
more reliable precursors are still underway, though even after decades of studying
there are still no useful recognized precursors. Even if new reliable precursors are
discovered practically speaking it will always be easier to measure faults on land than
faults submerged in deep bodies of water.
Current Status of Earthquake Prediction

Currently, the United States Geological Survey has the authority to issue warnings of
impending earthquakes. This has been the case for over 46 years. An Earthquake
Prediction Panel reviews the scientific evidences and prepares appropriate
statements for the people.

In China, earthquake prediction is something studied by several thousands of

researchers showing how important it is to guarantee the safety of a nation.
Current Status of Earthquake Prediction

Currently there are four countries that have had government-sponsored programs
dedicated to earthquake prediction. These include the previously mentioned nations
of the United States, the Republic of China, as well as Japan and Russia. These
programs concern themselves with intensely monitoring of active fault zones to
expand the data bases as well as experiments that cross-reference the understanding
of precursor phenomena. However even with all these, it is still important to note that
not all researchers can monitor every area, and even the precursors can range from
unreliable to absent.
Current Status of Earthquake Prediction

In the United States, earthquake predictions have not been regarded as reliable or
precise enough to justify such actions as large-scale evacuations. In the near term, it
seems that the more feasible approach is earthquake forecasting, identifying levels of
earthquake probability in fault zones within relatively broad time windows, as
described below. This at least allows for long- term preparations, such as structural
improvements. Ultimately, short-term, precise predictions that can save more lives
are still likely to require better recognition and understanding of precursory changes,
though recent studies have suggested that very short-term “early warnings” may
have promise.
The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting

This shows the studies of the dates of

large historic and prehistoric
earthquakes along major fault zones
have suggested that they may be
broadly periodic, occurring at
more-or-less regular intervals.
The Anatolian fault zone The Izmit Earthquake, (Kocaeli
Earthquake or Golcuk Earthquake)

- August 17, 1999

- magnitude 7.4
- strike-slip fault that separates
the Anatolian plate from the
eastward-moving Eurasian
plate,
- one of the best-recorded large
earthquakes in the world.
San Andreas Fault
- not long and deep enough to have a magnitude 9
or larger earthquake
- the largest historical earthquake was on 1906
- magnitude 7.9 earthquake.
- 1300-km-long transform boundary that
accommodates motion between the North
American and Pacific Plates.
Sunda Trench

Sunda Double Trench (Java Trench),

- deep submarine depression in the eastern Indian

Ocean the southwestern and southern Indonesian
archipelago.
- an active volcanic and seismic zone
- In 2004 a massive undersea earthquake (magnitude
9.1)
- This triggered a large tsunami that inundated coastal
areas throughout the Indian Ocean region and
caused widespread death and destruction.
The rough periodicity can be understood in terms of
two considerations.
First, assuming that the stress buildup is primarily associated with the slow,
ponderous, inexorable movements of lithospheric plates, which at least over decades
or centuries will move at fairly constant rates.
Second, the rocks along a given fault zone will have particular physical
properties, which allow them to accumulate a certain amount of energy before
failure, or fault rupture, and that amount would be approximately constant from
earthquake to earthquake.
California Earthquake
Probabilities
Earthquake forecast map issued by the 2007
Working Group on California Earthquake
Probabilities, indicating the 30-year probability of a
magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake. Over the whole
state, the probability of such a large earthquake by
2038 was estimated at 99.7%; the probability of at
least one quake of magnitude 7.5 or greater was set at
46%.
Earthquake Early Warnings?

In the meantime, a new idea has surfaced for saving lives and property damage:

Earthquake early warnings issued a few seconds, or perhaps tens of seconds, before an earthquake strikes.

What good would that do?

● Trains could be slowed and stopped.
● traffic lights adjusted to get people off vulnerable bridges, elevators stopped
at the nearest floor
● doors opened to let passengers out
● Automated emergency systems could shut off valves in fuel or chemical
pipelines and shutdown
● People in homes or offices could quickly take cover under sturdy desks and
tables.
The Japan Meteorological Agency

The Japan Meteorological Agency (deals with

earthquakes and tsunamis) has already developed the
capacity to issue these alerts, using a network of over
1000 seismographs, and public alerts are now issued for
larger quakes. Still, the system offers great promise for
reducing casualties in a very earthquake-prone part of the
world.
Public Response to Earthquake Hazards

● Earthquake drills - which stress orderly response to an

earthquake warning, are held in Japan on the anniversary
of the 1923 Tokyo earthquake in which nearly 150,000
people died.
● NDRRMC, DOST-PHIVOLCS- covers the four thematic
areas: prevention and mitigation, preparedness, response
and rehabilitation, and recovery.
Public Response to Earthquake Hazards

● Construction Practices (Building codes) - which would have enabled structures

in the country to better adapt to the destructive forces of nature.

● Disaster-response plans

● Improving Public Response

Future Earthquakes in North America?

Areas of Widely Recognized Risk

Southern Alaska - 27 March 1964,

- second-largest earthquake of the twentieth century

- 12,000 aftershocks, with a magnitude of 6.
- The tsunamis traveled as far as Antarctica. Possibility of another large
earthquake in San Francisco is raised
In the late 1800s, there was a
significant increase in numbers of
moderate earthquakes around the
northern San Andreas.
The 1992–1994 activity may represent
a similar pattern of increased activity
building up to a major earthquake
along the southern San Andreas.
Other Potential Problem
Areas
Earthquakes occur quite frequently in the
Philippines due largely to its location.

The country lies along the “Pacific Ring of

Fire,” home to several tectonic plate
boundaries that triggers volcanic eruptions
and unleashes earthquakes almost every day.
Devastating ‘faults’ of the ‘Big
One’
Three tectonic plates that encircle the country are the Philippine
Plate in the East; the Eurasian Plate in the West; and the
Indo-Australian Plate in the South.

A fault line is defined as a geological fracture wherein the

movement of masses of rock has displaced parts of the Earth’s
crust.
Five Active Fault Lines In
The Country

● Central Philippine Fault

● Marikina/Valley Fault System

● Western Philippine Fault

● Eastern Philippine Fault

● South of Mindanao Fault

 “Big One”

A scenario wherein movements along the Valley Fault

System could trigger a 7.2-magnitude quake.

Scientists claimed that the 100-km fault, which last

moved in 1658, moves every 400 years, meaning the
threat of a 7.2-magnitude quake is getting closer.
History of Earthquakes

Aug. 2, 1968

- Casiguran, Aurora
- Intensity 8
- 270 people were killed and 261 others
were hurt mostly due to the collapse of the
Ruby Tower
Aug. 17, 1976

- Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea (Mindanao)

- 7.9-magnitude
- 5,000 dead; 2,288 missing; and 9,928 injured.
- The tremor happened just after midnight when
most people were sleeping. A tsunami that
devastated more than 700 km of coastline, struck
from different directions, catching residents in
the area unaware.
- 40 aftershocks
Oct. 15, 2013

- 7.2-magnitude, Intensity 7,
- Tagbilaran City, Bohol
- P2.2 billion, devastating Central Visayas
particularly the provinces of Bohol and
Cebu.
- 200 persons were killed and over
14,000 structures
- including historical buildings and
churches were destroyed.
What to do?
(1) designing structures in active fault zones to be more resistant to earthquake damage;

(2) identifying and, wherever possible, avoiding development in areas at particular risk from
earthquake-related hazards;

(3) increasing public awareness of and preparedness for earthquakes in threatened areas;

(4) refining and expanding tsunami warning systems and public understanding of appropriate response;
and

(5) learning enough about patterns of seismicity over time along fault zones, and about earthquake
precursor phenomena, to make accurate and timely predictions of earthquakes and thereby save lives.
Summary

Earthquakes result from sudden slippage along fault zones in response to accumulated stress.

Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries and are related to plate-tectonic processes.

Earthquake hazards include ground rupture and shaking, liquefaction, landslides, tsunamis, coastal
flooding, and fires.

The severity of damage is determined not only by the size of an earthquake but also by underlying
geology and the design of affected structures.
-