LESSON 1: Exogenic Processes

EXOGENIC

 Exogenic processes include geological phenomena and processes that originate externally to the Earth's surface.
They are genetically related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, and therefore to processes of
weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and denudation.
Exogenous Processes

 Also called Gradational Processes, they comprise degradation and aggradation – they modify relief a continuum
of processes:
Weathering → Mass Wasting → Erosion → Transportation → Deposition
 These processes are carried through by Geomorphic Agents: gravity, flowing water (rivers), moving ice
(glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind, plants, organisms, animals and humans
1. Degradation Processes - Also called Denudation Processes
a. Weathering b. Mass Wasting c. Erosion and Transportation
2. Aggradation Processes
a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal
Degradation Processes:

 Weathering
 Mass Wasting
 Erosion
 Transportation
Deposition

 When particles carried by water, ice or wind are deposited (dropped) in another location.
Sand Dunes

 Desert and sands

Denudation

 The wearing down and stripping and leveling of the earth’s surface.

 Weathering - is the breaking

down of the rocks, soil, and
minerals as well as artificial
materials through contact with the
Earth's Atmosphere.
Weathering

 Is the breaking down of the rocks, soil, and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's
Atmosphere.
Different Types of Weathering
1. Physical Weathering - is caused by the effects of changing temperature on rocks, causing the rock to break
apart. The process is sometimes assisted by water.
2. Chemical Weathering - the erosion or disintegration of rocks, building materials, etc., caused by chemical
reactions (chiefly with water and substances dissolved in it) rather than by mechanical processes.
3. Biological Weathering - is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and
microbes. Growing plant roots can exert stress or pressure on rock.

Erosion -the process of eroding

or being eroded by wind, water,
or other natural agents.
Erosion

 The process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water, or other natural agents.
Different Types of Erosion
1. Water Erosion - removal of soil particles by heavy rainfall or running water.
2. Wind Erosion - this is when loose soil particles are collected by the wind and transported to another location.
3. Soil Erosion - is a naturally occurring
process that affects all landforms.

LESSON 2: Deformation of the Crust

An Idea Before Its Time

 Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis stated

that the continents had once been joined to
form a single supercontinent.
 Wegener proposed that the supercontinent,
Pangaea, began to break apart 200 million
years ago and form the present landmasses.
Breakup of Pangaea
Evidences

 Continental Puzzle

 Matching Fossils - fossil evidence for continental drift includes several fossil organisms found on different and
masses.

 Rock Types and Structures - Rock evidence for continental exists in the form of several mountain belts that end
at one coastline, only to reappear on a landmass across the ocean.

Rejecting the Hypothesis

A New Theory Emerges

 Wegener could not provide an explanation of exactly what made the continents move. News technology lead to
findings which then lead to a new theory called plate tectonics.

Earth’s Major Roles

 According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust, behaves as a strong,
rigid layer. This layer is known as the lithosphere.

 A plate is one of numerous rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit over the material of the
asthenosphere.

Plate Tectonics

Types of Plate Boundaries

 Divergent boundaries - also called spreading centers, are the place where two plates move apart.

 Convergent boundaries - form where two plates move together.

  Transform fault boundaries - are margins where two plates grind past each other without the production or
destruction of the lithosphere.

Actions at Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading

- Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated zones on the floor of all major ocean basins. The rifts at the crest of
ridges represent divergent plate boundaries.

- Rift valleys are deep faulted structures found along the axes of divergent plate boundaries. They can develop
on the seafloor or on land.

- Seafloor spreading produces new oceanic lithosphere.

Actions at Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

 Continental Rifts - when spreading centers develop within a continent, the landmass may split into two or more
smaller segments, forming a rift.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior

Earthquakes

 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy

 Focus and Epicenter: focus is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts, while the epicenter is the
location on the surface directly above the focus.

Faults

 Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred.

Cause of Earthquakes

Elastic Rebound Hypothesis

 Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been subjected to
great forces.

 When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an earthquake.

Aftershocks and Foreshocks

 An aftershock is a small earthquake that follows the main earthquake.

 A foreshock is a small earthquake that often precedes a major earthquake.

Earthquake Waves

 Seismographs are instruments that record earthquake waves.

 Seismograms are traces of amplified, electronically recorded ground motion made by seismographs.

 Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer.

SEISMOGRAPH SEISMOGRAM

Measuring Earthquakes

Historically, scientists have used two different types of measurements to describe the size of an earthquake - intensity
and magnitude.

Richter Scale

 Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave

 Each unit of Richter magnitude equates to roughly a 32-fold energy increase

 Does not estimate adequately the size of very large earthquakes

Momentum Magnitude

 Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along the fault zone.

 Moment magnitude is the most widely used measurement for earthquakes because it is the only magnitude scale
that estimates the energy released by earthquakes.

 Measures very large earthquakes.

Seismic Vibrations

Liquefaction

 Saturated material turns fluid

 Underground objects may float to surface

Tsunamis

Cause of Tsunamis

 A tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a fault.

 A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a quake sets an underwater landslide into motion.

 Tsunami is the Japanese word for “seismic sea wave.”

Destruction from Earthquakes

Landslides

With many earthquakes, the greatest damage to structures is from landslides and ground subsidence, or the sinking of the
ground triggered by vibrations.

Fire

In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, most of the destruction was caused by fires that started when gas and electrical
lines were cut.

LESSON 3: History of the Earth

Rocks Tell the Earth's Story

The continental crust contains the historical record of our planet. Its most ancient rocks are four billion years old,
and the youngest ones are still forming today. Parts of the continental crust may be older than four billion years, but if so,
they are not exposed, or have not been found, on the Earth’s surface.

The rocks of the crust convey the story of how the planet has been transformed between the period shortly after its
formation and the way we see it today.

How Did the Earth Form?

The Sun and its family of planets formed when a cloud of dust and gas condensed 4.6 billion years ago. Several
hundred million years after the Earth took form, an outer crust developed. But these surface rocks are no longer available
for study: they have disappeared into the interior of our dynamic planet. Our only clues to how the Earth formed come
from meteorites and the Moon because both formed simultaneously with the planets.

Age of the Earth

Earth is estimated to be 4.54 billion years old, plus or minus about 50 million years. Scientists have scoured the
Earth searching for the oldest rocks to radiometrically date.

In northwestern Canada, they discovered rocks about 4.03 billion years old. Then, in Australia, they discovered
minerals about 4.3 billion years old. Researchers know that rocks are continuously recycling, due to the rock cycle, so
they continued to search for data elsewhere.

Since it is thought the bodies in the solar system may have formed at similar times, scientists analyzed moon rocks
collected during the moon landing and even meteorites that have crash-landed on Earth. Both of these materials dated to
between 4.4 and 4.5 billion years.

Major Divisions of Geological Time

The geologic time scale is an essential tool for understanding the history of Earth and the evolution of life. In this
article, explore the principal eons, eras, periods, and epochs that help us track major events in geologic history.
The Geologic Time Scale

How do we know when the dinosaurs died out? How do we know when birds first appeared on Earth or when humans
evolved? What about the beginning of life itself? How was our planet formed and populated by living things over time?
 To answer these questions, geologists use a special timeline called the Geologic Time Scale. It's a record of the
earth's geologic history as scientists have come to understand it by studying the layers in rock. The geologic time scale is
broken up into larger and smaller subdivisions, which help us get a better sense of how historical events fit together.

Study of Strata

People have been studying earth and rock formations for a very long time. In the 19th century, geologists took a
closer look at the layers that they saw in sedimentary rocks. They noticed that the rock tended to lie in horizontal sections
that had different colors, textures, and fossils inside. The top rock layer might have been limestone containing lots of snail
fossils. The next layer may have been chunky conglomerate rock, while the next was a layer of shale and fish fossils.

Geologists called these layers of different rock types strata. They studied rock strata all around the world in order to
figure out major events in geologic history. Over time, geologists and other scientists put all that information together to
make the geologic time scale.

Timeline Divisions

Before we learn the parts of the geologic time scale, let's first talk about how we measure time in our own daily lives.
For instance, how do you measure the time it takes to get ready for work or school? Do you measure it in minutes? Hours?
Seconds? Days? Chances are you probably measure in minutes. Minutes are fine for measuring daily chores, like driving
to an appointment, fixing dinner, or doing the laundry.

But what if you're talking about a bigger chore, like training for a marathon? You probably plan out your preparation
on the scale of days, hours, weeks, and months. We measure our age in terms of years. We measure generations in terms
of decades. And when we look at human history, we talk about it in terms of hundreds and thousands of years.
 Obviously, it doesn't make sense to talk about everything on the same time scale. That's why we've broken up our
time. Years are made up of months, months are made up of weeks, weeks are made up of days, and so on.

Geologists use the very same strategy to talk about the history of the earth. They break up geologic time into larger
and smaller chunks, so that major events are easier to talk about. Okay, now let's go ahead and check out the major
divisions of the geologic time scale.

Eons and Eras

The first principal subdivision is called the eon. An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans
hundreds to thousands of millions of years. Geologists generally agree that there are two major eons: the Precambrian
eon and the Phanerozoic eon. The Precambrian goes from the formation of the earth to the time when multicellular
organisms first appeared - that's a really long time - from 4,500 million years ago to just about 543 million years ago.
Then begins the Phanerozoic eon, which continues up to today.

Eons are made up of eras, divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of years. The three
major eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic era is the one we are in today. It began 65
million years ago, right about the time that the dinosaurs went extinct.

Period and Epoch

Period is one of several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic events
from place to place.
 An Epoch is a subdivision of the geologic timescale that is longer than an age and shorter than a period. We are
currently living in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period. Rock layers deposited during an epoch are called a
series. Series are subdivisions of the stratigraphic column that, like epochs, are subdivisions of the geologic timescale.
Like other geochronological divisions, epochs are normally separated by significant changes in the rock layers they
correspond to.

Epochs are most commonly used for the younger Cenozoic Era, where a greater collection of fossils has been found and
paleontologists have more detailed knowledge of the events that occurred during those times.

They are less commonly referred to for the other eras and eons, since less fossil evidence exists that allows us to
form a clearer view of those time periods.

Geological Time Scale

The geological time scale measures time on a scale involving four main units:

 An epoch is the smallest unit of time on the scale and encompasses a period of millions of years.

 Chronologically, epochs are clumped together into larger units called periods.

 Periods are combined to make subdivisions called eras.

 An eon is the largest period of geological time.

Marker Fossils

“Marker Fossils” means index fossils. The marker fossils are the fossils which are found in the particular time period.
There is the fix time period form evolution till the extension. Thus, finding the fossils of those particular time period
indicated the geological time of deposition of the layer or strata. It provides the particular time period of formation of any
Formation. Even the marker fossils/ index fossils being the identical characters of individual locality of Formation. In
short, marker fossils define the particular time period of extinction so is related to geological time.
LESSON 4: Geologic Processes and Hazards (Earthquakes-Volcanic Eruptions)
Physical map of the World

 70% oceanic crust; 30% continental crust

The Earth Is a Dynamic Planet

What is geology?

 Dynamic processes taking place on earth’s surface and in earth’s interior

Three major concentric zones of the earth

 Core

 Mantle

o Including the asthenosphere

 Crust

o Continental crust

o Oceanic crust: 71% of crust

Tectonic map of the world

Major Features of the Earth’s Crust and Upper Mantle

The Earth Beneath Your Feet Is Moving (Tectonic Plates)

Three types of boundaries between plates

 Divergent boundaries

 Magma

 Oceanic ridge

Convergent boundaries

 Subduction zone

 Trench

Transform boundaries: San Andreas fault

The Earth’s Crust Is Made Up of a Mosaic of Huge Rigid Plates: Tectonic Plates
The Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates

Earthquakes

Where do earthquakes occur? Why?

Why and where earthquakes and occur?
 Why earthquakes occur: release of energy

Ground shaking Acceleration or push

when seismic waves reach the Earth’s surface

Earthquakes are caused when the Earth moves along faults

Enriquillo-Plantain Garden Fault zone: 1860; 1770; 1751 –last earthquakes

 Population and shaking

Warmer colors equals higher Stronger shaking is associated with

population concentrations population concentrations

Structural failure
What type of hazards can you think of associated with an earthquake?

 Earthquake Hazards

 Liquefaction

 Landslides

 Ground Rupture

 Ground shaking

 Tsunami

What do we need to do?

Preparedness

 Retrofit structures known not to respond well in earthquakes

Education

 Local population understanding the potential hazard can reduce loss of life

Recovery

 State and local agencies aid in the recovery of natural disasters

 Search and rescue volunteers

 International help

Connection

 Patterns and characteristics of earthquakes and volcanoes

 The theory of plate tectonics helps explain this pattern

 If people understand the possible hazards, preparation can help reduce the risk

Volcanoes

Cross-section of the Earth showing earth processes producing earthquakes and volcanoes
 Why are some volcanoes more destructive than others?

The Mt. St. Helens eruption, 1980

If the magma is not very sticky, the magma can come out slowly and then the volcano is not explosive. It is a matter
of the amount of gas in the magma and how easily it can come out. If magma is thick, gas bubbles cannot easily escape
and pressure builds up as the magma rises. When the pressure is too much an explosive eruption can happen, which can be
dangerous and destructive.

Why do some volcanoes look different than others?

Mauna Loa, Hawaii

 To see that different types (shapes) of volcano are created by different types of magma leading to different types
of eruption. Observe the flow of different liquids and compare their viscosity. Volcanoes differ in appearance because of
the composition of their magma and the processes that originally created them. The tall cone shape you usually think of
when you think of a volcano describes a composite volcano, one common form of volcanoes.

Volcanoes around the World

What type of hazards can you think of associated with a volcanic eruption?
 Monitoring

 Scientists document any change in volcanic activity with technology.

  Volcanic eruptions have been predicted
LESSON 5: Hydro-meteorological Phenomena and Hazards

What are hydrometeorological hazards?

These are phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.

EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

 A TROPICAL CYCLONE is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans from where it draws the
energy to develop. It has a low pressure centre and clouds spiraling towards the eyewall surrounding the "eye",
the central part of the system where the weather is normally calm and free of clouds.

 A THUNDERSTORM, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the
presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. Relatively weak
thunderstorms are sometimes called thundershowers.

 A HAILSTORM is an unusual weather phenomenon in which balls of ice, called hail, fall from the sky. The ice
balls are nothing more than solid precipitation that will form under certain conditions.

o HAIL is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets, though the two are often confused. It
consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone.

o Ice pellets fall generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface
temperatures.

 A TORNADO is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground.
Because wind is invisible, it is hard to see a tornado unless it forms a condensation funnel made up of water
droplets, dust and debris.

 BLIZZARD STORM - a blizzard is a severe snow storm with winds in excess of 35 mph and visibility of less
than a 1/4 mile for more than 3 hours. Blizzards can also occur after snowfall when high winds cause whiteouts
(fallen snow blowing around) and snowdrifts (huge mountains of snow), which decrease visibility.

 HEAVY SNOWFALLS - blizzards are dangerous winter storms that are a combination of blowing snow and
wind resulting in very low visibilities. While heavy snowfalls and severe cold often accompany blizzards, this air,
now full of water, dumps the water as snow in areas generally to the south and east of the lakes.

 An AVALANCHE is a rapid flow of snow down a hill or mountainside. Although avalanches can occur on any
slope given the right conditions, certain times of the year and certain locations are naturally more dangerous than
others. Wintertime, particularly from December to April, is when most avalanches tend to happen.

 A STORM SURGE, storm flood, tidal surge or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of
rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as tropical cyclones. It is measured as
the rise in water level above the normal tidal level, and does not include waves.

 A FLASH FLOOD is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and depressions. It may be
caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or melt water from ice or
snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.

 A DROUGHT is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or
ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days.
 A HEAT WAVE, or HEATWAVE, is a period of excessively hot weather, which may be accompanied by high
humidity, especially in oceanic climate countries. While definitions vary, a heat wave is usually measured relative
to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season.

EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES

 CYCLONE - A cyclone is an intense low-pressure system which is characterized by strong spiral winds towards
the center, called the “Eye” in a counter-clockwise flow in the northern hemisphere. Hazards due to tropical
cyclones are strong winds with heavy rainfall that can cause widespread flooding, storm surges, landslides and
mudflows.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CYCLONES

 Tropical Depression – maximum winds from 35 kph to 63 kph

 Tropical Storm – maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph

 Typhoons – maximum winds exceeding 118 kph

 TYPHOON - a typhoon is can be identified by increased ocean swell, barometric pressure drop, wind speed, and
heavier rainfall. It is a low-pressure area rotating counterclockwise and containing rising warm air that forms
over warm water in the Western Pacific Ocean. Typhoons can damage due to thunderstorms, violent winds,
floods, and large waves with storm surges.

 FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS - flash floods are inundation of land areas which are not normally covered by
water. Floods are hydrological phenomena and they are also caused by storm surges, and tsunami. They are
identified by continuous storms/ rain, distant thunders, rapidly rising water, muddy water, and water that carries
logs and other debris.

 STORM SURGE - storm surge is a rise of seawater above normal sea level on the coast, generated by the action
of weather elements such as cyclonic wind and atmospheric pressure. Storm surge can sweep across large portions
of coastal areas. They can be identified by cumulu-nimbus dark skies, low pressure, strong winds, and rising of
seawater.

 LIGHTNING STORMS/ THUNDERSTORMS - a thunderstorm is a weather condition that produces lightning

and thunder, heavy rainfall from cumulonimbus clouds and possibly a tornado. It is identified by Cloud
formations, Darkening skies, Lightning and wind.

 EL NIÑO - El Niño is a flow of unusually warm water along the western coast of South America that causes
many changes in weather in other places. They can be identified by Hot weather, High pressure, Gradual drying
of land, and Change in temperature.

 LA NIÑA - La Niña is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the tropical west
coast of South America. La Nina is considered to be the counterpart to El Nino. It is characterized by Cold air,
Less temperature difference, Cooler water and air, and a single weaker Jetstream.
 RISK MITIGATION THROUGH ANALYZING HAZARD MAP

PRACTICAL WAYS on COPING UP WITH HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD is to just be prepared.

Here are a few things you can keep in your homes just in case things go really bad:

 Flashlight

 First aid kit

 Extra food

 Extra drinking water. You can also store some in covered pails for sanitary reasons.

 Fully charge mobile devices with extra batteries if possible. You can call for help and keep yourself occupied with
games (if you like) while waiting for help.

 A completely filled generator would be nice but considering it’s cost, we know not everyone will have it.

 Before the wet season arrives, it would be best to check around the house for potential leaks like an unsecured
corrugated metal roof panels. Clean your canals if you find any trash that may clog it during strong rains.

 Keep everything inside like your pets, and anything important that can be blown away during a storm.

 If flooding is a possibility, take everything important upstairs or somewhere close to the roof. These could be
important documents and photos.
  Have important phone numbers ready, like your relatives, police station and barangay hall just in case.

LESSON 6: Marine and Coastal Processes And Their Effects

MARINE AND COASTAL PROCESSES

 Occurs when waves break on a shore, not only on ocean or sea coasts but also on lakes and ponds.

COASTAL EROSION

Coastal Erosion is the wearing away of the land by the sea. This often involves destructive waves wearing away the
coast. There are five main processes which can cause coastal erosion:

 Corrasion - is when waves pick up beach material (e.g. pebbles) and hurl them at the base of a cliff.

 Abrasion - occurs as breaking waves which contain sand and larger fragments erode the shoreline or headland. It
is commonly known as the sand paper effects.

 Hydraulic Action - when waves hit the base of a cliff air is compressed into cracks. When the wave retreats the
air rushes out of the gap. Often this causes cliff material to break away.

 Attrition - is when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other and break up.

 Corrosion/Solution - is when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak acids in the sea.

Coastal Transportation

Is the movement of material in the sea and along the coast by waves. The movement of material along the coast is
called long shore drift. Although long shore drift is the main process of transportation the material moves in four different
ways:

 Traction - large material is rolled along the sea floor.

 Saltation - beach material is bounced along the sea floor

 Suspension - beach material is suspended and carried by the waves.

 Solution - material is dissolved and carried by the water

Coastal Deposition

Is the laying down of material on the coast by the sea. It occurs when waves lose energy or when large inputs of
sediment are made into the coastal system - perhaps due to the arrival of fluvial sediment at a river estuary.

Hazards caused by Coastal Processes

Coastal hazards are caused by dynamic processes such as waves, tides and currents and rock weathering along the coast.

 Beach storm erosion (immediate erosion hazard)

 Coastal recession (long term erosion hazard)

  Coastal inundation - flooding caused by storm waves and storm surge

 Dune instability and sand movement - when sand blows inland across private property and parkland

 Geotechnical hazards (for example, rock fall and landslides).

Hazards that occur in the wake of:

Tropical Cyclone

 Strong Winds

 Storm Surge

 Heavy Rainfall

Monsoons

 Heavy Rainfall

 Floods

 Landslide

Tornado

 Violent Winds

 Flying Debris

LESSON 7: Coastal Processes

 Coastal processes are the set of mechanisms that operate along a coastline, bringing about various combinations
of erosion and deposition.

 The land water interface along the coastline is always in a highly dynamic state and nature works towards
maintaining an equilibrium condition.

 The energy due to tide, waves, wind and currents is constantly working in the coastal zone. Dissipation of energy
(due to tide, wind, waves and current) is often provided by the beaches, mudflats, marshes and mangroves.

 Human use of the coasts also requires space and herein lays the conflict, which results in unstable coastal systems.
This induces coastal erosion, sediment transport and accretion.

 Coastal processes are highly unpredictable and is a challenge to coastal scientists. Some of the coastal processes
are:

 Sediment transport
  currents

 Denudation

 Deposition

 Erosion

 Flooding

 Diffraction

 Refraction

 Sediment transport is the one of the important coastal process.

 The analysis and prediction of sediment transport have great commercial, aesthetic, social, and scientific
importance owing to the sustainable development and coastal zone management.

Sediment Transport and Coastal Processes Definitions

 accretion - natural or artificial deposition of sediment in a particular location

 beach nourishment - the restoration of a beach by the mechanical placement of sand on the beach for
recreational and/ or shore protection purposes.

 cross shore transport - the displacement of sediment perpendicular to the shore

 erosion - the removal of sediment from a particular location by the action of wind or water.

 groin - shore perpendicular structure, installed singly or as a field of groins, designed to trap sand from the littoral
drift system.

 long shore bar - offshore ridge or mound of sand, gravel or other loose material running parallel to the shore
which is submerged (at least at high tide) and located a short distance from the shore.

 tombolo - the combination of an offshore rock or island which is connected to the beach by a sand spit.

 sand spit - low tongue of land or a relatively long, narrow shoal extending from the land.

 long shore transport (littoral drift) - the displacement of sediment down the shore (parallel to the shore).

 offshore transport - movement of sediment or water away from the shore

 gabions - Boulders and rocks are wired into mesh cages and usually placed in front of areas vulnerable to heavy
to moderate erosion.

 onshore transport - movement of sediment or water toward the shore.

Coastal profile:

The offshore
  Nearshore

 Beach

 Coast

Processes responsible for initiating sediment Transportation

Changes in water level

 Tides

 Waves

 Currents

 Stream outflow

Coastal response

 The areas, most directly affected by the forces of the sea are the beaches, the gulfs, and the nearshore zone regions
that experience the full impact of the sea’s energy.

 There are two general types of dynamic beach response to wave motion:

o Response to normal condition

o Response to storm condition

 Normal condition prevail most of the time, and the wave energy is easily dissipated by the beach’s natural defence
mechanisms.

 When storm conditions generateswaves containing increased amounts of energy, the coast must respond with
extraordinary measures, such as sacrificing large section of beach and dune.

 Alternate erosion and accretion may be seasonal on some beaches; the winter storm waves erode the beach, and
the summer waves rebuilds it.

 Another nearshore dynamical system is littoral transport - the movement of sediments in the nearshore zone by
waves and currents.

o Littoral transport is divided into two general classes:

 Longshore transport: Transport parallel to the shore.

 Onshore-offshore transport: Transport perpendicular to the shore.

Landforms of Littoral Drift

Onshore offshore drift and longshore drift deposit and shape debris to produce a variety of landforms. A spit is an
elongated deposit that extends from the land edge out to sea. It may be shaped to produce a distinctly curved end, as in
Cape Cod. Another landform that attaches an island to the mainland is known as a tombolo, while deposits may also
accumulate to create barriers such as a bay barrier.
Salt water intrusion

 Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to groundwater
quality degradation, including drinking water sources, and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion can naturally
occur in coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater.

 If too much freshwater is pumped from the aquifer system, then saltwater can migrate landward by a process
referred to as “saltwater intrusion.”

 If a pumping well is close to the landward migrating freshwater/saltwater interface, saltwater could enter the well
and contaminate the water supply, too.

 Best management practices in areas at high risk of saltwater intrusion: Well drilling: Well siting: Avoid drilling in
locations immediately adjacent to the coast e.g. within 50 m. Well depth: Avoid drilling excessively deep within
areas proximal to the coast.

 Possible solutions to coastal erosion and submersion are: Breakwaters - to stop waves from taking more sand
away from beaches; Jetties - to prevent sand from flowing into shipping channels, and Groins - that slow down
waves before they reach the shore, reducing the amount of sand removed from the beaches.

 Salt water intrusion on the other hand is harder to deal with, in most cases, salt water intrusion is caused by well
drilling sites that are too near to the ocean, discontinuing these wells would be a possible way of coping with salt
water intrusion.

LESSON 7: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

 A cell is the smallest working unit of life that is capable of performing life functions.

 It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

 The cell theory, first developed in 1838 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden, Theodor Schwann (1839) and Rudolf
Virchow (1858)

 The word cell comes from the Latin cella, meaning "small room”

Cell Theory

 All organisms are composed of cells.

 Cells are the smallest living things.

 Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the first living cells.

Cell size is limited

 As cell size increases, it takes longer for material to diffuse from the cell membrane to the interior of the cell.

 Surface area-to-volume ratio: as a cell increases in size, the volume increases 10x faster than the surface area
CELL THEORY

 Microscopes are required to visualize cells.

 Light microscopes can resolve structures that are 200nm apart.

 Electron microscopes can resolve structures that are 0.2nm apart.

All cells have certain structures in common:

 genetic material – in a nucleoid or nucleus

 cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix

 plasma membrane – a phospholipid bilayer

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and genetic material is present in the nucleoid

Two types of prokaryotes:

 archaea

 bacteria

Prokaryotic cells possess

 genetic material in the nucleoid

  cytoplasm

 plasma membrane

 cell wall

 ribosomes

 no membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic cell walls

Protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls

 may be composed of peptidoglycan

 may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

Flagella

 present in some prokaryotic cells

 used for locomotion

 rotary motion propels the cell

Eukaryotic cells

-possess a membrane-bound nucleus

-are more complex than prokaryotic cells

-compartmentalize many cellular functions within organelles and the endomembrane system

-possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure

Nucleus

-stores the genetic material of the cell in the form of multiple, linear chromosomes

-surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of 2 phospholipid bilayers

-in chromosomes – DNA is organized with proteins to form chromatin

Ribosomes

-the site of protein synthesis in the cell

-composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins

-found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm and attached to internal membranes

Endomembrane system

-a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm

-divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur

1. endoplasmic reticulum

2. Golgi apparatus

3. lysosomes

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

-membranes that create a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm

-attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a rough appearance

-synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes or plasma membrane

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

-relatively few ribosomes attached

functions:

-synthesis of membrane lipids

-calcium storage

-detoxification of foreign substances

 The endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within
a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles. The
system is defined more accurately as the set of membranes that form a single functional and developmental unit,
either being connected directly, or exchanging material through vesicle transport.

 The nuclear membrane contains a lipid bilayer that encompass the contents of the nucleus. The endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) is a synthesis and transport organelle that branches into the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells.

 Vacuoles, which are found in both plant and animal cells (though much bigger in plant cells), are responsible for
maintaining the shape and structure of the cell as well as storing waste products. A vesicle is a relatively small,
membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances.

 The Golgi apparatus is a series of multiple compartments where molecules are packaged for delivery to other
cell components or for secretion from the cell.

Endomembrane System

Golgi apparatus
-flattened stacks of interconnected membranes

-packaging and distribution of materials to different parts of the cell

-synthesis of cell wall components

Lysosomes

-membrane bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes to break down macromolecules

-destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis

Microbodies

-membrane bound vesicles

-contain enzymes

-not part of the endomembrane system

-glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for converting fats to carbohydrates

-peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and catalase

Vacuoles

-membrane-bound structures with various functions depending on the cell type

There are different types of vacuoles:

-central vacuole in plant cells

-contractile vacuole of some protists

-vacuoles for storage

Mitochondria

 organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells

 contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for transferring the energy within macromolecules to ATP

 found in all types of eukaryotic cells

 surrounded by 2 membranes:

o smooth outer membrane

o folded inner membrane with layers called cristae

MATRIX
  is within the inner membrane

 intermembrane space is located between the two membranes

 contain their own DNA

Chloroplasts

 organelles present in cells of plants and some other eukaryotes

 contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis

 surrounded by 2 membranes

 thylakoids are membranous sacs within the inner membrane

 grana are stacks of thylakoids

Cytoskeleton

 network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells

 supports the shape of the cell

 keeps organelles in fixed locations

 helps move materials within the cell

Cytoskeleton fibers include

 actin filaments – responsible for cellular contractions, crawling, “pinching”

 microtubules – provide organization to the cell and move materials within the cell

 intermediate filaments – provide structural stability

Review of Eukaryotic Cells
  

 Different Types of Weathering 

 1. Physical Weathering
 is caused by the effects of
changing temperature on rocks, causing
the rock to break apart. The process is
sometimes assisted by water.