ASIA PACIFIC COLLEGE OF ADVANCE STUDIES

AH Banzon St., Ibayo, City of Balanga, Bataan

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
(ELECTIVE 1)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:
1. Encyc. Brit. – encyclopedia Britannica 2001
2. NSCP 2015 – National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP), Volume I, Buildings, Towers and
Other Vertical Structures, 7th Edition
3. McCormac – Structural Analysis (A Classical and Matrix Approach), Second Edition, Jack C.
McCormac and James K. Nelson Jr.; 1997
4. Norris – Elementary Structural Analysis, Fourth Edition; C. H. Norris, J. B. Wilbur & S. Utku; 1991
Lesson 2: Elements of Seismology
OBJECTIVES

• To introduce the elements of seismology, different theories related to earthquake, plate boundaries,
and types of fault.

DEFINITION OF EARTHQUAKE
The word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a natural phenomenon or an
event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.

Earthquake – is a series of elastic wave in the earth’s crust caused by sudden relaxation of strains
accumulated by along geologic faults and volcanic actions and resulting in movements of the earth’s
surface. It consists of ground vibration principally the horizontal and vertical vibration, although the
ground motion is in any considerable direction. The acceleration, which goes with the vibration, is the
one that induces the earthquake force.

Earthquake – a vibratory shaking of the ground caused by some sudden disturbance of natural origin
within the earth. The vibrations are elastic waves traveling at high speed through the earth.

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.

An earthquake originates at a considerable depth below the surface of the earth at a point on the
fault plane where the stress that produces the slippage is a maximum. This point is called the focus or
hypocenter. While the point on the earth’s surface directly above it is called the epicenter.

Faults – fracture on the earth’s crust or breaks in rocks along which there is displacement of rocks
on one side relative to the other.

Focus/ hypocenter – the point on a fault at which the first movement or break occurs during an
earthquake.

Seismology -The study of causes, propagation and affects of the movements of the earth’s crust that
result from an earthquake is known as seismology.
A. Types of Earthquakes

Types of earthquakes as to its origin (natural):

1. Tectonic earthquakes – are caused by the sudden slippage along a fault or line of dislocation in
the outer part of the earth; are earthquakes or waves of distortion resulting from ruptures or a sudden
movement along existing fault in the earth’s crust.

An intraplate earthquake is an earthquake that occurs in the interior of a tectonic plate, whereas an
interplate earthquake is one that occurs at a plate boundary. Intraplate earthquakes are rare compared
to earthquakes at plate boundaries. Nonetheless, very large intraplate earthquakes can inflict heavy
damage. Notable examples of damaging intraplate earthquake are the 1811-1812 earthquakes in New
Madrid, Missouri, and the 1886 earthquake in Charleston, South Carolina.

2. Volcanic earthquakes – are associated with volcanic eruption or subterranean movement of

magma; result from sudden movements of liquid lava below the surface or from fracturing of the rocks
as a result of lava movement. Ex. Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980.

Types of earthquakes as to focal depth:

1. Shallow earthquakes – earthquakes with focal depths from the surface to about 70 km. Majority
of the earthquakes are of shallow origin. Most of the tectonic earthquakes detected thus far have
originated at depths of no more than sixty (60) kilometers. They are considered as surface earthquakes.
Their origin is associated with deformations of the Earth’s crust, which is in a state of constant
deformations owing to the convection currents in the plastic zones of the mantle.
2. Intermediate earthquakes - earthquakes with focal depths from 70 km – 300 km. (12%)
3. Deep earthquakes - earthquakes with focal depths greater than 300 km. (depths ranging 300-
700 km). They commonly occur in patterns called Benioff zones like Japan, Vanuatu, Tonga and Alaska,
and are normally associated with deep ocean trenches. (6%)

Artificially induced earthquakes (human activity):

1. collapse of caverns or mine workings

2. injection of fluids into deep wells
3. detonation of large underground nuclear explosions
4. excavations of mines
5. quarry blasting
6. filling of large reservoirs

B. Theories Related to Earthquakes

1. Theory of Plate Tectonics. According to this theory, the earth’s outer shell consists of huge plates up
to 60 miles in thickness that float on a partially plastic layer of the upper mantle (asthenosphere).
These plates are assumed to move laterally and grind together of their margins, thus producing
earthquake faults.
The theory states that Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces
called plates: the African, North American, South American, Eurasian, Australian, Antarctic, and
Pacific plates. Several minor plates (about 14) also exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and
Philippines plates.
2. Continental Drift Theory. The theory, first advanced by Alfred Wegener, that the earth's continents
were originally one land mass called Pangaea. About 200 million years ago Pangaea split off and the
pieces migrated (drifted) to form the present-day continents. The predecessor of plate tectonics.

3. Elastic Rebound Theory. When friction between rocks on either side of a fault is such as to prevent
the rocks from slipping easily, or when the rock under stress is not already fractured, some elastic
deformation occurs before failure. When the stress at last exceeds the rupture strength of the rock
(or friction between rocks along an existing fault), sudden movement occurs along the fault: an
earthquake. The stressed rocks, released by the rupture, snap back elastically to their previous
dimensions, a phenomenon known as elastic rebound.

As formulated by the American geologists Harry Fielding Reid, the theory explains that a tectonic
earthquake occurs when stresses in rock masses have accumulated to a point where they exceed
the strength of the rocks, leading to rapid fracture. These rock fractures usually tend in the same
direction and may extend over many kilometers along the zone of weakness.

PLATE BOUNDARIES

• At the boundaries between these huge plates of rock and soil, the plates sometimes move apart,
and magma, or molten rock, comes to the surface, where it's called lava. It cools and forms new
parts of the crust. The line where this happens is called a divergent plate boundary.

• The plates also can push against each other. Sometimes, one of the plates will sink underneath
the other into the hot layer of magma beneath it and partially melt. Other times, the edges of
the two plates will push against each other and rise upward, forming mountains. This area is
called a convergent plate boundary.
 • But in other instances, plates will slide by and brush against each other -- a little like drivers on
the highway sideswiping each other, but very, very slowly. At the region between the two
plates, called a transform boundary, pent-up energy builds in the rock. A fault line, a break in
the Earth's crust where blocks of crust are moving in different directions, will form. Most,
though not all, earthquakes happen along transform boundary fault lines.

Difference between Interplate, Intraplate and Megathrust Earthquake

Interplate Earthquake- is an earthquake that occurs at the boundary between two tectonic plates.

Intraplate Earthquake- is an earthquake that occurs in the interior of a tectonic plate.

Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones at destructive plate boundaries (convergent

boundaries), where one tectonic plate is forced (or subducts) under another.

Due to the shallow dip of the plate boundary, which causes large sections to get stuck, these
earthquakes are among the world's largest, with moment magnitudes (Mw) that can exceed 9.0. Since
1900, all five earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes; in fact, no
other type of known tectonic activity can produce earthquakes of this scale.

C. TYPES OF FAULTS (Slip Fault Direction)

The two sides of a fault are called the hangingwall and footwall.

➢ Strike-Slip Fault: This occurs on an approximate vertical fault plane as the rock on one side of the
fault slides horizontally past the other. Two types of a strike-slip fault are the left lateral faults
and the right lateral faults as shown in Figure below.
 If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the left, the fault is called left- lateral. If the
block on the far side moves to the right, the fault is called right-lateral. The fault motion is
caused by shearing forces; occurs along transform plate boundaries. Examples of right
lateral/slip fault are the San Andreas Fault in California and the North Anatolian Fault.

➢ Dip-Slip Fault: This occurs when the fault is at an angle to the surface of the Earth and the
movement of the rock is up or down. The types of faults on this category are:

1. Normal Fault – the hanging wall moves down and the foot wall up; when the relative
movement is in an upward and downward direction on a nearly vertical fault plane. The
block above the fault moves down relative to the block below the fault. It is caused by
tensional forces and results in extension; also called normal-slip fault, tensional fault or
gravity fault. This type of faulting is often observed in the Western United States Basin and
Range Province and along oceanic ridge systems along divergent plate boundaries.
2. Reverse Fault – the reverse happens; the hanging wall moves up and the foot wall moves
down; occurs along convergent boundaries.

Thrust Fault – This is a special category of the reverse fault. The fault plane lies at a low
angle to the Earth’s surface; when the earth is under compressive stress across the fault and
slippage is in an upward and downward direction along an inclined fault plane; or when the
block above the fault moves up relative to the block below the fault. This fault is caused by
compressional forces and results in shortening.

Blind Thrust – the thrust fault that does not extend all the way the Earth’s surface. The
ground above the blind thrust bends instead of breaking so that the surface has only rolling
hills.
➢ Oblique Slip Fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components
of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Oblique slip fault is caused by a
combination of shearing and tension or compressional forces.