Lithosphere- makes up the Earth’s crust and upper mantle

Epicenter- refers to the location on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an
earthquake
Geologists- studied that mountains are formed from smashing the Earth's tectonic plates
Pinatubo- famous Philippine volcano usually seen in world maps due to its violent eruption in
1991
Plate Tectonics Theory- the Earth’s outer layer is broken into large slowly moving pieces
Seismology- study of earthquakes and the waves they created
Along the Faultline- where the earthquakes usually occur
Two continental plates collide- could result in mountain formation
lithospheric plates- vary in thickness
-thickest in the mountain regions
-. include the crust and upper mantle
Sea floor- the geologic feature that will be formed at the crust’s surface at the divergent
boundary
Seismograph- an instrument used to measure the intensity and direction, and duration of
movements of an earthquake
Tsunamis are created through submarine earthquake that causes a huge amount of water to
be displaced
Mountain ranges are found in places where volcanoes and/or earthquake epicenters are also
situated.
Divergent plate boundary- where seafloor spreading occurs.
convergent, divergent, and transform- three types of plate boundaries
convergent boundary- Convergent boundary is present when two plates collide
oceanic-continental convergence- a process of subduction occurred here, which formed large
volcanoes
volcanoes mostly found at places where continents meet the seas because it is where the
oceanic plates subduct under the continental plate.
subducting plate- a type of plate that dives down under a less dense plate during subduction
two continental plates converge- mountain
earthquake- shaking of the ground due to any activity in the lithosphere
California, USA- where San Andrea fault is located
Mantle- a solid layer
two main factors of tectonic plate movement- Gravitational force at the spreading ridges and
subduction zones.
Plate movements- Plate movement is a scientific plate movements theory describing the large-
scale motion of seven large plates and the movement of a larger number and smaller plates of
the Earth’s lithosphere
factors for plate movements - Thermal convection, ridge push, and slab pull
Ridge push is the weight of the uplifted ridge that pushes an oceanic plate toward the trench
formed at the subduction zone.
Slab pull is the weight of a subducting plate that helps pull the trailing lithosphere into the
subduction zone
rocks, fossils, climate- evidences that scientists use to support the Continental Drift Theory
Pangaea- supercontinent landmass formed millions of years ago
evidence is gathered by Alfred Wegener to support his Continental Drift Theory- continental fit,
rocks, fossils, coal deposits, ancient climate, and glaciers scars
early observers that thought continents might have been joined, from what did you based on
your observation? Coastline
He cannot explain what causes the continents to drift

Quarter 1 – Module 1: Volcano and its Relation to Plate Tectonics

The crust and a part of the upper mantle make up the Lithosphere. It is subdivided into portions
called plates. Plates are large pieces of the upper few hundred kilometers of Earth that move as
a single unit as it floats above the mantle. There are two kinds of crust: Continental plates which
are thicker but less dense, and Oceanic plates which are thinner but denser.
Plate Tectonics is a theory which suggests that Earth’s crust is made up of plates that
constantly move and interact in various ways, thus, producing earthquakes, mountains,
volcanoes, and other geologic features.
The world’s earthquakes volcanoes and mountain ranges are not randomly distributed over the
Earth’s surface. They are both situated at the same place near the edges of the continents.
Geologic activities such as seismicity or the occurrence of earthquake. volcanism, and mountain
formations are the basis of scientists in dividing Earth’s lithosphere.
Continental volcanic Arc- mountains formed in part
Convergent boundary- two plates move toward each other, causing one of the slabs of the
lithosphere

LESSON 1: DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

When the tectonic plates move apart (diverge), magma will ooze out from the cracks and
fissures of the crust that are moving apart forming vents. These will then lead to formation of
new land masses, volcanoes and volcanic activities. On the other hand, when the plates move
towards each other (converge), upon collision, the plate that sinks (subducts) will melt in the
mantle. And where there is melting of the plates, formation of volcanoes occurs.

In the Philippines, volcanoes and volcanic activities are classified and monitored by the
Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS). PHIVOLCS classified the
volcanoes in the Philippines according to its eruptive history. There are three classifications of
volcanoes in the Philippines according to PHIVOLCS.

1. Active Volcanoes — Erupted within historic times (within the last 600 years).
Accounts of these eruptions were documented by man. Erupted within the last
10,000 years based on the analyses of materials from young volcanic deposits.
2. Potentially Active Volcanoes — Morphologically young-looking but with no historical
or analytical records of eruption.
3. Inactive Volcanoes — No recorded eruptions. Physical form has been intensively
weathered and eroded, bearing deep and long gullies
Delos Reyes et. al. (2018) listed twenty-four active volcanoes in the Philippines. The rest
are considered potentially active and/or inactive.
When plates converge, one of the plates sinks to the mantle. As a result, trenches are
formed. Parallel to the trench is an array of volcanoes formed from the melted plate (magma)
that escaped from the mantle. The figure below shows the formation of volcanoes along the
converging plates.

LESSON 2: EARTHQUAKE AND TYPES OF WAVES

There are two (2) main types of earthquake waves: Body waves and surface waves.
Body waves are further divided into P-waves and S-waves. P-waves or primary waves travel
faster than the other seismic waves. It is considered as the first signal from an earthquake to be
felt. This may be transmitted through gases, liquids and solids. S-waves or Secondary waves
are a type of elastic wave and are one of the two main types of seismic waves. It is also called
as shear waves.
Surface waves are further divided into Rayleigh waves and love waves. Rayleigh wave
moves in elliptical motion, producing both vertical and horizontal motions. This move the ground
up and down and side to side in the same direction that the wave is moving. It is named after
Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt). Love wave is named after Augustus Edward Hough Love.
It has horizontal motion that is transverse to the direction the wave is travelling and is
considered to be the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side to side.

PLATE BOUNDARIES

 According to the Plate Tectonic Theory, the Earth’s lithosphere consists of the crust and
upper mantle that move slowly and constantly over time. This movement causes the
formation of plate boundaries namely: divergent, convergent, and transform fault
boundaries.
 Divergent boundary is formed when plates move apart, creating a zone of tension. This
either occurs at mid-ocean ridges (seafloor spreading) or at rifted continental margins
(rift valley).
 Convergent boundary is present when two plates collide.
 Transform fault is characterized by plates that are sliding past each other.
 Plate tectonics give rise to several geologic features and events.

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Convergent boundary is also called a destructive boundary, an area on the Earth where two or
more lithospheric plate collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other creating a process
called subduction.
TYPES OF CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
Oceanic-Continental- The leading edge of the subducted plate melts in the mantle and magma,
forming a continental volcanic arc.
Oceanic-oceanic- one of the plates is pushed, or subducted, under the other that mixes with the
overlying mantle, this leads to the formation of Volcanic Island Arc.
Continental-continental- With two continental plates converging, a compression zone is formed.
Both plates collide and buckle up causing mountain ranges such as the Himalayas mountain
ranges. There is no subduction, no trench, and no volcanoes formed in this type of convergent
boundary
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
Divergent boundary is formed when two tectonic plates move apart from each other creating
tension. Molten rocks called magma to rise from the Earth’s mantle to the surface. The Earth’s
surface is cool enough to solidify the magma that rose, thus, creating new oceanic crust or
seafloor. A divergent boundary is also known as a constructive boundary.

TYPES OF DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

Oceanic-oceanic divergence- leads to the formation of mid-ocean ridge
Continental-Continental divergence-leads to the formation of continental rift valley.

TRANSFORM FAULT PLATE BOUNDARY

Transform fault plate boundary is formed when two plates are sliding past each other. It is also
called the Strike-slip fault. Rocks that line the boundary split into pieces as the plates slip at
each other. A crack is then formed creating an undersea canyon or linear fault valley. San
Andreas Fault is an example of this.
TYPES OF TRANSFORM FAULT PLATE BOUNDARY
1. Ridge-Ridge Boundary- also known as gravitational sliding or sliding force is a proposed
driving force for plate motion in plate tectonics that occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the result of
the rigid lithosphere sliding down the raised asthenosphere below mid-ocean ridges.
2. Ridge- Trench Boundary — a type of fault in which two tectonic plates slide past one
another. A transform fault may occur in the portion of a fracture zone that exists between
different offset spreading center or that connects spreading center to deep -sea trenches in
subduction zones.
3. Trench — Trench Boundary —deep trenches are often formed when tectonic plates are
being subducted and earthquakes are common. As the sinking plate moves deeper into the
mantle, fluids are released from rock causing the overlying mantle to partially melt.

EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENTS

ALFRED WEGENER
• a German polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist.
• The continents were once one large mass.
•
PANGEA
• a Greek word which means “All Earth”
• started to break into smaller supercontinents called LAURASIA and GONDWALAND
during the Jurassic Period

Wegener searched for evidences to support his claim. He noticed the fit edges of the continents
on the opposite sides of the South Atlantic. His evidences to the Continental Drift Theory include
the distribution of fossils in different countries, rock features, and ancient climate.

Evidence from Fossils

• Fossils- are remains or traces of organisms (plants or animals) from the remote past
 • Glossopteris, Mesosaurus, Cynognathus, Lystrosaurus
Glossopteris
• the most important fossil evidence found in the plant
• found in Australia, Antarctica, India, South Africa, and South America—all the southern
continents.
• its seed is known to be large and bulky and possibly could not have drifted or flown
across the oceans to a separate continent.
• Therefore, the continents must have been joined at least one point in time in order to
maintain the Glossopteris' wide range across the southern continents.
Mesosaurus
• Freshwater reptile, similar to the modern crocodile, which propelled itself through the
water with its long hind legs and limber tail
• remains are found solely in South Africa and Eastern South America.
• Now, if the continents were still in their present positions, there is no possibility that the
Mesosaurus would have the capability to swim across such a large body of ocean like
the Atlantic because it was a coastal animal.
Cynognathus
• mammal-like reptile, as large as a modern wolf
• fossils are found only in South Africa and South America. As a dominant land species,
the Cynognathus would not have been capable of migrating across the Atlantic.
Lystrosaurus
• translates to "shovel reptile," is thought to have been a herbivore with a stout built
like a pig.
• fossils are only found in Antarctica, India, and South Africa.
• Similar to the land-dwelling Cynognathus, the Lystrosaurus would not have had the
swimming capability to traverse any ocean.
Evidence From Rocks
• Rocks formation in Africa line up with that in South America as if it was a long mountain
range.
• The folded cape mountains of South America and Africa line up perfectly as if they were
once a long mountain range
• Examples are the familiar rock strata of the Karroo system of South Africa matched
correctly with the Santa Catarina system in Brazil, and Brazil and Ghana mountain
ranges agreeing over the Atlantic Ocean.