DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST

Theory of Plate Tectonics

 Tectonics come from the word tekton which means “to build”.
 This theory describes the forces within the Earth that give rise to continents, ocean basins, mountain ranges,
earthquakes belts, and other large scale features of the Earth’s crust.
 The theory holds that the Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, is divided into eight relatively large plates and a
number of smaller ones.
 Each plate moves distinctly in relation to other plates, hence the interior of the plates are generally geologically
quiet. All major interactions between plates are manifested along plate boundaries.

Tectonic Plate Movement

1. Plate Divergence or Divergent Movement
- Occur when plates pull apart from each other.
- Most plate divergence occurs along ocean ridges, but this process can also break apart continental crust.
- Examples of this kind of plate movement are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Great Rift Valley. Iceland is
an example of a country undergoing a continental divergent boundary.
- Earthquake and tsunami are the possible effects if this kind of plate movement occurs.

2. Plate Convergence or Convergent Movement

- Occur when plates crush into each other and land crumples, forming trenches and mountain.
- Examples are the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountain Ranges in South Africa.
- Trenches, volcanic activity and earthquake are the possible effects if convergent movement happens.

3. Transform or Lateral Movement

- Occur when plates move alongside each other in different directions.
- The sideswiping motion causes earthquakes.
- Examples of this kind of plate movement are San Andreas Fault zone in California and Alpine Fault of
New Zealand.
- Submarine mountain ranges, earthquake and volcanic activity are the possible effects if transform
movement occurs.

The Continental Drift Theory

 In 1912 a German meteorologist Alfred Wegener set forth the Continental Drift Theory. He believed that there
was once a supercontinent Pangaea, meaning “all land” that existed.
 This giant supercontinent was surrounded by a single giant sea known as Panthalassa, a Greek word for “all
seas”.
 According to Wegener, Pangaea split up into two large continents. The southern continent was called Gondwana
and the northern continent was called Laurasia.
 Gondwana in the southern hemisphere was consisted of South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and India.
Laurasia in the northern hemisphere was made up of North America, Europe and Asia.

Evidence in Support of Continental Drift

 One field of study that helped initiate the reassessment of Wegener’s theory or continental drift involves
measurement of magnetic field orientation in rocks.
 Iron-bearing minerals in rock record the magnetic field of Earth as it existed when the rock solidified, which
a phenomenon known as paleomagnetism.
 Ancient climatic similarities, fossil evidences and rock structure support the idea of supercontinent.
Seafloor Spreading
 The mechanism that operates along the ocean ridge system to create new floor.
 Harry Hess, an American geologist presented this hypothesis and he proposed that the seafloor is not
permanent but is continuously being renewed.
 That the ocean ridges are located above upwelling convection cells of mantle. The theory of the seafloor
spreading provided the mechanism for continental drift.

Seafloor Sediments
1. Trigenous Sediment
- Consist of minerals and grains that were weathered from continental rocks and transported to the
ocean.
2. Biogenous Sediment
- Consist of shells and skeletons of marine animals and algae.
3. Hydrogenous Sediment
- Consist of minerals that crystallize directly from seawater through various chemical reactions.