Paper Title: Geotectonic and Geomorphology

Unit I: Geotectonic-
Sub-unit: 3. Concept of Isostasy – Airy and Pratt; global isostatic adjustment

Concept of Isostasy:

Introduction:

Different relief features e.g., mountains, plateau, plains, lakes, seas and oceans, faults and rift
valleys etc. standing on the earth’s surface are probably balanced by certain definite principle,
otherwise these would have not been maintained in their present form. Whenever this balance is
disturbed, there start violent earth movements and tectonic events. Thus, ‘isostasy simply means
a mechanical stability between the upstanding parts and low-lying basins on a rotating earth’.

Concept of Isostasy:

The word ‘isostasy’ is derived from a German word ‘isostasios’ which means ‘in equilibrium’.
The word was coined by American geologist Dutton in 1959. Isostasy simply means a
mechanical stability between the up-standing parts and low-lying basins on a rotating globe.

It was used to describe ‘the state of balance which must exist between large upstanding areas of
the earth’s surface, mountain ranges and plateaus and contiguous lowlands etc’.

According to Dutton the upstanding parts of the earth (mountains, plateau, plains and ocean
basins) must be compensated by lighter rock materials from beneath so that the crustal reliefs
should remain in mechanical stability.

Isostasy is basically an ideal theoretical balance of large portions of the earth's lithosphere such as
mountains, plateaus etc. as if these are floating on the denser material layer lying under earth, the
asthenosphere. It attempts to explain how varying topographic heights can stand on the earth‘s
surface.

Development of the concept of Isostasy:

The concept of isostasy came in the mind of geologists but the concept grew out of the attraction
of giant mountainous masses.

Pierre Bouguer during his expedition of the Andes in 1735-45 found that the towering volcanic
peak of Chimborazo was not attracting the plumb line, as it should have done. He thus maintained
that the gravitational attraction of the Andes ‘is much smaller than that to be expected from the
mass represented by these mountains.

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About a century later, in 1859, during the geodetic survey of the Indo-Gangetic plain laid by the
Surveyor General of India, Sir George Everest, a similar discrepancy came out. The difference
of latitude of Kalianpur and Kaliana (603 km due northward) were determined by
triangulation method and astronomical method. Kaliana was only 96 km away from the
Himalayas in the foothills.

According to the Triangulation method, the measurement of latitude is 5-degree 23-minute

42.294, And Seconds Measurement of latitude through Astronomical method is 5-degree 23
minute 37.058 seconds. Finally, the difference between of this place is 5.236 seconds.

This discrepancy was attributed

to the gravitational attraction
of the Himalayas.

Later A. Pratt attempted to

estimate the degree of the
gravitational attraction of the
Himalayas assuming that the
mountains have the average
density of 2.75 g/cm3. He
calculated the effects on the
plum-bob at two places (Kaliana and Kalianpur) and the difference was three times more
(15.885) than the previously observed deflection of 5.236 calculated. This brought to the scientific
community that Himalayas were not exerting the force proportional to its large volume.

The following explanations were proposed:

1. The Himalayas are hollow from inside composed of bubbles rather than solid rocks.
This explains lower gravitational force of Himalaya due to lower weight and density. But this
explanation can’t be accepted because such a high mountain can’t be stand on the earth’s surface
if it composed of bubbles.

2. Another explanation was given as the density of the rocks ‘must be relatively low down to
considerable depth.’ This explains the lower weight and the resultant lesser gravitational force.

3. It is possible that the Himalayan rocks are of comparatively lower in density and thus
lesser gravitational force.

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4. It was postulated that ‘there is such a level below the surface of the earth below which there is
no change in the density of the rocks. All columns have same mass and therefore ‘the bigger the
column, the lesser the density, and the smaller the column, the greater the density.

Theory of Isostasy:

There are mainly two ideas developed in the mid-19th century on the basis of which the concept
of isostasy depends.

1. Concept of Sir George Airy:

The concept of Isostasy was introduced by Sir George Airy in the year of 1855. This concept
was based on law of floatation.

Main Theme/main concept:

1. According to him the relatively lighter material is floating in the substratum of denser material.
In other words, ‘sial’ is floating on ‘sima’. Different relief features i.e., mountains, plateau, plains
are lighter continental parts are floating on highly dense substratum or asthenosphere. In this way,
the Himalayas are floating in denser glassy magma.

2. Himalayas are floating in the denser magma with their maximum portion sunk in the magma in the same
way as a boat float in water with its maximum part sunk in the water. This concept is related to the principle
of floatation.

3. According to the law of floatation, the part that is higher on the surface extends inwards, and
vice-versa. That means higher surface area have greater depth and low laying area having lower
depth.

Experiment:

1. An iceberg floats in water in such a way

that for each and every 1 part to be above
water-level, 9 parts of the iceberg remain
below water level. In other words, the law
of floatation demands that ‘the ratio of
freeboard to draught is 1 to 9.’ It may be
pointed out that Airy did not mention the
example of the floatation of iceberg.

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In the same way, if we assume the average density of the crust is 2.67 and the substratum is 3.0,
for every one part of the crust to remain above the substratum, nine parts of the crust must be in
the substratum.

2. Airy took several pieces of iron of varying lengths and put them in a basin full of mercury.
These pieces of iron sunk up to varying depths depending on their lengths. The same pattern may
be demonstrated by taking wooden pieces of varying lengths. If put into the basin of water these
would sink in the water according to their lengths. He simply maintained that the crustal parts
(landmasses) were floating, like a boat, in the magma of the substratum.

Conclusion:

If we apply the law of floatation, as stated above, in the case of the concept of Airy, then we have
to assume that for the 8848 m height of the Himalaya there must be a root, 9 times more in length
than the height of the Himalaya, in the substratum. Thus, for 8848-m part of the Himalaya above,
there must be downward projection of lighter material beneath the mountain reaching a depth of
79,632 m (approximate 80,000 m).

Based on above observation Airy postulated that if the land column above the substratum is larger,
its greater part would be submerged in the substratum and if the land column is lower, its smaller
part would be submerged in the substratum.’ According to Airy the density of different columns
of the land (e.g., mountains, plateaus, plains etc.) remains the same. In other words, density does
not change with depth, that is, ‘uniform density with varying thickness.’ This means that the
continents are made of rocks having uniform density but their thickness or length varies
from place to place.

Criticism:

Though the concept of Sir George Airy commands great respect among the scientific community
but it also suffers from certain defects and errors.
1. If we accept the Airy's views of isostasy, then every upstanding part must have a root below in
accordance with its height (like 1:9). Thus, the Himalaya would have a root equivalent to 79,632
m (if we accept the freeboard to draught ratio as 1 to 9).
2. It would be wrong to assume that the Himalaya would have a downward projection of root of
lighter material beneath the mountain reaching such a great depth of 79,632 m because such a long
root, even if accepted, would melt due to very high temperature prevailing there, as temperature
increases with increasing depth at the rate of 1°C per 32 m.
3. The effect of heat and pressure towards the inner part of earth is absent.

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2. Theory of Archdeacon Pratt:

In 1859 Archdeacon Pratt discovered his theory of isostasy. This theory is based on Law of
compensation.

Main concept:

The concept of Pratt indicating varying density and uniform depth.

While studying the difference of gravitational deflection of 5.236 seconds during the geodetic
survey of Kaliana and Kalianpur Archdeacon Pratt calculated the gravitational force of the
Himalaya after taking the average density of the Himalaya as 2.75 and came to know that the
difference should have been 15.885 seconds. He then studied the rocks (and their densities) of the
Himalaya and neighbouring plains and found that the density of each higher part is less than a
lower part. In other words, the density of mountains is less than the density of plateaux, that of
plateau is less than the density of plain and the density of plain is less than the density of oceanic
floor and so on. That means, there is an inverse relationship found between the height of different
columns and their respective densities, which can be expressed in the following manner- ‘bigger
the column lesser the density and smaller the column, greater the density.’ In reality we saw
that the taller landforms have lesser density like mountain and plateau, and smaller height features
have higher density like ocean, plain etc.

Experiments: 1. There are two columns, A and B, along

the line of compensation. Both the columns, A and B,
have equal surface area but there is a difference in their
height. Both the columns must have equal mass along the
line of compensation, so the density of column A should
be less than the density of column B so that the weight of
both the columns becomes equal along the line of compensation.

2. Pratt take a container full of mercury and equal

diameter with varying densities materials to examined
the law of compensation. He observed that the silver,
zinc, pyrite, antimony, iron, nickel, copper, and lead is
floating in different heights on a compensation line. He
also observed lighter materials have more height and
heavy materials have low height. The different height depends on density of the materials.

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 Conclusion:

From the above experiments, we can say that ‘uniform depth with varying density’ or bigger
the column lesser the density and smaller the column, greater the density.’ He coined density
does not change within one column but it changes from one column to other columns above the
level of compensation.

According to Pratt there is a level of compensation above which change in density of different
columns of land but there is no change in density below this level. He also concludes different
relief features are standing only because of the fact that their respective mass is equal along the
line of compensation because of their varying densities. Thus, the central theme of the concept is
expressed as ‘uniform depth with varying density’. Finally, the Prats concept of isostasy was
related to the ‘law of compensation’ and not to ‘the law of floatation.’

Criticism:

1. law of compensation is not accepted to all due to erosional work of compensation level, and
different compensation line. For example, compensation line of the young fold mountains extends
up to 70 km, and oceanic crust extends in between 10-110 km. Normally we know, landforms are
lifted after erosion and landforms go downward after depositional work.

2. The concept of ‘uniform depth with varying density’ is not always accepted.

Difference between Airy and Pratt’s Theory:

Subject Airy’s Theory Pratt’s Theory
1. Year of origin This concept was introduced in the This concept was introduced in the
year of 1855 year of 1859
2. Definition All blocks have equal density with All blocks have equal thickness/depth
varying thickness/depth. with varying density.

3. Basis Airy's concept of Isostasy works on Pratt's concept of Isostasy is based on

the basis of the law of floatation.
4. Believed He believed in upstanding position
was result of expansion of earth
interior after getting heated.
5. Used Airy model is used for continental
topography especially mountain
ridges.
6. Height Height is proportional to root, higher
the elevation thicker the block and
root.
7. Density Uniform density of crustal material.
the law of compensation.
He believed in contraction of earth in
the process of origin of earth.
Pratt model is used for mid- oceanic
ridges.
Pratt has not used word root.
Varying density of crustal material.

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8. level of No level of Compensation is present But a level of Compensation also
compensation in this theory. present here.
9. Root Formation Deeper root below the mountain and No root formation
smaller beneath plain.
10. Figure

11. Depth of column The columns are of varying depth The columns are of uniform depth
12. Floatation Sial is floating on sima Sial is sinking in sima

Global Isostatic Adjustment:

➢ It is quite apparent that there is no complete isostatic balance over the globe. Because the earth
is unstable.
➢ Endogenetic forces often disturb the crustal balance.
➢ The regular earthquakes and volcanic eruptions along a particular belt do not signify any balance
but a sort of adjustment is needed continuously.
➢ Exogenetic forces are trying to eliminate the differences on the surface of the earth and in this
process, they are peeling off, transporting down to far flung places, and depositing them.
➢ In this process, isostatic balance is maintained by the underneath flowage of material by
subsidence at the place of deposition and upliftment at the peeling of place in their proportion to
the denudation.

It appears from the result of various expeditions, experiments and observations that if the isostatic
adjustment does not occur at local level, it does exist at extensive regional level. It is necessary
that must be balance at local level, it maybe and it may not be. The endogenetic forces and resultant
tectonic events cause disturbances in the ideal condition
of isostasy but nature always tends towards the isostatic
adjustment.

For example, a newly formed mountain due to tectonic

activities is subjected to severe denudation.
Consequently, there is continuous lowering of the
height of the mountain. On the other hand, eroded
sediments are deposited in the oceanic areas, with the

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result there is continuous increase of weight of sediments on the sea-floor. Due to this mechanism
the mountainous area gradually becomes lighter and the oceanic floor becomes heavier, and thus
the state of balance or isostasy between these two areas gets disturbed but the balance has to be
maintained.

It may be stated that the pressure and weight over the mountain decreases because of continuous
removal of material through denudational processes. This mechanism leads to gradual rise in the
mountain. On the other hand, continuous sedimentation on the sea-floor causes gradual subsidence
of the sea-floor. Thus, in order to maintain isostatic balance between these two features there must
be slow flowage of relatively heavier materials of substratum (from beneath the seafloor) towards
the lighter materials of the rising column of the mountain at or below the level of compensation.
Thus, the process of redistribution of materials ultimately restores the disturbed isostatic condition
to complete isostatic balance.

Sometimes the endogenetic forces act so suddenly and violently that the state of isostatic balance
is break down. Similarly, sometimes climatic changes occur at such an extensive global scale that
there is accumulation of thick ice sheets on the land surface and thus increased burden causes
isostatic disturbance.

For example, extensive parts of North America and Eurasia were subsided under the enormous
weight of accumulation of thick ice sheets during Pleistocene glaciation but the landmasses began
to rise suddenly because of release of pressure of superincumbent thick load of ice sheets due to
deglciation and consequent melting of ice sheets about 25,000 years ago and thus the isostatic
balance was disturbed. According to an estimate major part of Scandinavia and Finland have
risen by 900 feet. The land masses are still rising at the rate of one foot per 28 years under the
process of isostatic recovery. The isostatic adjustment in these areas could not be achieved till
now.

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