HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

MEASUREMENT
 Spatialdistance – distance between any two random points
in three dimensional space.
 Although slope distances are frequently observed in
surveying operation, these distances are then reduced to a
horizontal projection for more convenient use in subsequent
calculations and field lay-out.
 Inplane surveying, horizontal distances are reduced to sea
level only when it is desired to convert them into equivalent
distances to another elevation.

DISTANCE
 PACING – furnishes a rapid means of approximately
checking more precise measurements of distance. It is used
on reconnaissance surveys and, in small-scale mapping, for
locating details and traversing with the plane table.
 Each two paces or double step is called a stride.
 Paces or strides are usually counted by means of a tally
register operated by hand or by means of a pedometer
attached to the leg.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 MILEAGE RECORDER, ODOMETER, and other methods
 Distance maybe measured by observing the number of
revolutions of the wheel of a vehicle.
 ODOMETER – a simple device that can be attached to any
vehicle and directly registers the number of revolutions of a
wheel.
 By mathematical or graphical methods, unknown distances
may be determined through their relation to one or more
known distances. These methods are used in triangulation and
plane-table work.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 TACHEOMETRY – includes stadia with transit and stadia rod;
stadia with alidade, plane table, and rod; distance wedge
and horizontal rod; and subtense bar and theodolite. The
precision of the stadia method depends upon the
instrument, the observer, the atmospheric conditions, and
the length of sights.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT – based on the
invariant speed of light or electromagnetic waves in a
vacuum.
 EDM equipment which can be used for traverse,
triangulation, and trilateration as well as for construction
layout is rapidly supplanting taping for modern surveying
operations except for short distances and certain types of
construction layout.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 TAPING – involves direct measurement of distance with
steel tapes varying in length from 3 ft (1m) to 1000 ft (300
m). Graduations are in feet, tenths, and hundredths, or
meters, decimeters, centimeters, and millimeters.
 Theprecision of distance measured with tapes depends
upon the degree of refinement with which measurements
are taken.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 Tapesare made in a variety of materials, lengths, and weights.
Those commonly used by the surveyor and for engineering
measurements are the steel tapes, sometimes called the
engineer’s or surveyor’s tape, and woven nonmetallic and
metallic tapes.
 Woven metallic tape – is a ribbon of waterproofed fabric into
which are woven small brass or bronze wires to prevent its
stretching. It is usually 50, 100, or 150 ft. long; is graduated in feet
, tenths, and half-tenths; and is 5/8 in. wide
 Metric
metallic tape – is 10, 20, 30, or 50 m long; is graduated in
meters, centimeters, and 2 mm; and is usually 13 mm wide.

TAPES
 Metallic tapes are used principally in earthwork cross
sectioning, in location of details, and in similar work where a
light, flexible tape is desirable and where small errors in length
are not of consequence.
 Forvery precise measurements, such as those base lines and
in city work, the invar tape has come into general use. Invar is
a composition of nickel and steel with a very low coefficient
of thermal expansion, sometimes as small as one-thirtieth that
of steel, and is affected little by temperature changes.

TAPES
 Steeltapes for which the foot is the unit of length are graduated
as follows: lightweight tapes and some engineer’s tapes are
graduated to hundredths of feet throughout the length.
 Fiber
glass tapes are also available in units of feet and meters
and may be obtained in lengths of 50, 100, and 150 ft or 15, 30,
and 50 m.

 The tape should be kept straight when in use; any tape will break
when kinked and subjected to a straight pull. Steel tapes rust
readily and should be wipe dry after being used. Special care is
required when working near power lines. Fatal accidents have
occurred from throwing a steel or metallic tape over a power
line.
 Additional equipment employed for determining the lengths of lines
by direct measurement with a tape consists of plumb bobs, hand
level, the tension handle, chaining pins, and range poles.
 Plumb bob – is a pointed metal weight used to project the
horizontal location of a point from one elevation to another.
 Handlevel – can be used to keep the two ends of the tape at the
same elevation when measuring over irregular terrain.
 Tensionhandle – is a spring scale which can be attached to the
end of the tape and allows applying the proper tension.

EQUIPMENT FOR TAPING

  Steel taping pins, also called chaining pins, taping arrows, or
surveyor’s arrows, are commonly employed to mark ends of
the tape during the process of taping between two points
more than a tape length apart. They are usually 10 to 14 in (25
to 35 cm) long. A set consists of 11 pins.
 Nails may be driven into the earth for more precise taping or
for future reference.
 Keel (carpenter’s chalk), pencil, or spray paint for paved
surfaces
 Wooden stakes or hubs for profile level and transit-traverse
lines

EQUIPMENT FOR TAPING

1. When the line is measured with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are applied to the observed by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a
tape that is “too long”, the correction are subtracted to the
known length to be laid out.
3. When measuring or laying out length with a tape that is
“too short”, the corrections are applied opposite to those
stated in the first two rules.

CORRECTION IN TAPING
 Example:

 Thelength of line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. When the tape is
compared with a standardized invar tape, it is found to be 0.016 m too long in
almost the same condition. Determine the correct length of AB.
 Solution:

 Correction = 0.016 m too long

 By Ratio and Proportion
𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
=
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
0.016 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
50 465.285
0.016 (465.285)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 0.149 m
50
∴ 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ± 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
= 465.285 + 0.149
= 𝟒𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝒎
 𝑯 = 𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝑠 – slope distance between two points A and B

𝐻 – horizontal distance
𝜃 – vertical angle observed with a clinometer or transit

 Slope Correction : 𝑪𝒉 = 𝒔 − 𝑯
ℎ - difference in elevation

CORRECTION FOR SLOPE

 𝒉𝟐
 Correction also can be computed by 𝐶ℎ = for gentle slope,
𝟐𝒔
where in the slope distance is assumed to be equal to the horizontal
distance (s = H)
ℎ
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 100%
𝐻
𝒉𝟐
1. Gentle slopes (less than 20%) 𝐶ℎ =
𝟐𝒔
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
2. Steep slopes (between 20% to 30%) 𝐶ℎ = + 𝟑
𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔
3. Very steep slopes (greater than 30%) 𝐶ℎ = 𝒔 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)
CORRECTION FOR SLOPE
 Slopedistance AB and BC measure 660.97 m and 330.49 m respectively.
The difference in elevation are 12.22 m for B and C and 10.85 m for A
and B. Determine the horizontal distance of line ABC using gentle slope
formula. Assume that line AB has rising slope and BC is a falling slope.
 Solution:

𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝒉𝟏 𝟐 (𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟐)𝟐
 𝐶ℎ1 = 𝟐𝒔𝟏
= 𝟐(𝟑𝟑𝟎.𝟒𝟗)
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝒎
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 (𝟏𝟎.𝟖𝟓)𝟐
 𝐶ℎ2 = 𝟐𝒔𝟐
= 𝟐(𝟔𝟔𝟎.𝟗𝟕)
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 𝒎
 𝐻1 = 𝑠1 − 𝐶ℎ1 = 330.49 − 0.226 = 330.264 m
 𝐻2 = 𝑠2 − 𝐶ℎ2 = 660.97 − 0.089 = 660.881 𝑚
∴ 𝐻 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 + 𝟔𝟔𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟏 = 𝟗𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑚
1. A slope measurement of 29.954 m was made between two
points where 𝜃 is 4° 30’. Determine the horizontal distance.
𝐻 = 𝑠 cos 𝜃
𝐻 = 29.954 cos 4° 30’ = 29.862 m

2. It is desired to set point D a horizontal distance of 195.0 ft from

point E along a line which has a slope angle of 5° 30’. What
slope distance should be measured in the field?
𝐻 195
𝑠= = = 195. 90 𝑓𝑡
cos 𝜃 cos 5° 30’

EXAMPLE
 Reduction of slope to horizontal distance can also be
determined by using the difference in elevation between the
two ends of the line.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑯 = 𝒔 −𝒉
 Example:

1. A distance of 130.508 m was measured over terrain with a

constant slope along a sloping line which has a difference in
elevation between the two ends of 5.56 m. Calculate the
horizontal distance between the two points.
𝐻 2 = 𝑠 2 − ℎ2
𝐻2 = (130.508)2 −(5.56)2
𝐻= (130.508)2 −(5.56)2
𝐻 = 130.39 𝑚
2. Point R is to be set at a horizontal distance of 98.25 ft from
point Q along a sloping line where the difference in elevation
between R and Q is 4.35 ft. Calculate the slope distance to
be measured in the field.
𝐻 2 = 𝑠 2 − ℎ2
(98.25)2 = 𝑠 2 − (4.35)2
(98.25)2 +(4.35)2 = 𝑠 2
𝑠= (98.25)2 +(4.35)2
𝑠 = 98.35 𝑓𝑡
3. A distance was measured over irregularly sloping terrain.
Slope distances and differences in elevation are tabulated in
the two columns on the left of the following table. Calculate
the horizontal distance and correction.
Slope Difference Horizontal 𝐶ℎ = 𝑠 − 𝐻
distance, in distance
ft elevation,
ft
100.00 3.50
100.00 5.30
80.50 4.20
100.00 8.05
62.35 5.25
 The horizontal distance is then computed by either subtracting
the sum of the corrections, 𝐶ℎ , from the total slope distance; or
applying individual corrections to corresponding slope
distances and taking the sum of the horizontal distances.
Slope distance, ft Difference in Horizontal 𝐶ℎ = 𝑠 − 𝐻
elevation, ft distance
100.00 3.50 99.94 0.06
100.00 5.30 99.86 0.14
80.50 4.20 80.39 0.11
100.00 8.05 99.68 0.32
62.35 5.25 62.13 0.22
442.85 442.00 0.85
- 0.85
CHECKING
442.00
➢ Systematic errors in taping linear distances are those
attributable to the following causes:
1. Tape not of standard length
2. Tape not horizontal
3. Variations in temperature
4. Variations in tension
5. Sag
6. Incorrect alignment of tape, and
7. Tape not straight

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS IN TAPING

  The nominal length of a tape, as stated by the manufacturer,
rarely corresponds exactly with the true length. The true length
is taken as the length determined by comparison with a known
standard length under given conditions of temperature,
tension, and support.
 The absolute value for the tape correction 𝐶𝑑 is

𝑪𝒅 = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉𝒕

1. TAPE NOT OF STANDARD LENGTH

 When horizontal taping is being performed over sloping
ground, discrepancies frequently occur because the
tape is not truly horizontal. It will not be eliminated by
repeated measurements, but it can be reduced to a
negligible amount by leveling the tape with either a
hand level or a clinometer.

2. TAPE NOT HORIZONTAL

 The tape expands as the temperature rises and contracts as the
temperature falls. Therefore, if the tape is standardized at a given
temperature and measurements are taken at a higher
temperature, the tape is too long.
 The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is approximately
0.00000645 / 1℉ or 0.0000116 / 1℃.
 If the tape is standard at a temperature of 𝑇𝑜 degrees and
measurements are taken at a temperature of 𝑇 degrees, the
correction 𝐶𝑡 for change in length is given by the formula
𝑪𝒕 = 𝜶𝑳 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐
𝐿 is the measured length and 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal
expansion
➢ Errors due to variations in temperature are greatly reduced by
using an invar tape. If a steel tape is used, one or more tape
thermometers should be taped to it.
3. VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE
 If the tension or pull is greater or
less than that for which the tape
is verified, the tape is elongated or
shortened accordingly. The
correction for variation in tension is
given by the formula
𝑷 − 𝑷𝒐 𝑳
𝑪𝒑 = approximately 490 lb/𝒇𝒕𝟑 or
𝒂𝑬
𝐶𝑝 - correction per distance L,
ft or m
𝑃 – applied tension, lb or kg
𝑃𝑜 - tension for which the tape is
standardized, lb or kg
𝐿 – length, ft or m
𝑎 – cross-sectional area, 𝑖𝑛2 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑚2
𝐸 – elastic modulus of the steel,
lb/𝑖𝑛2 or kg/𝑐𝑚2
The modulus of elasticity is taken as
28 to 30 million lb/𝒊𝒏𝟐 or
𝟐. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The cross-
sectional area of the tape can be
computed from the weight and
dimensions, since steel weighs
𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 . Light (1-lb) and
heavy (3-lb) 100-ft tapes have cross-
sectional areas of approximately
0.003 and 0.009 𝒊𝒏𝟐 , respectively.
Light and heavy 30-m tapes have
respective cross-sectional areas of
about 0.019 and 0.058 𝒄𝒎𝟐 .
4. VARIATIONS IN TENSION
 Example:

 1.Assume that a light 100-ft tape is standard under a tension

of 10 lb, E = 30,000,000 lb/𝑖𝑛2 , and the cross-sectional area of
the tape is 0.003 𝑖𝑛2 . Determine the elongation for an increase
in tension from 10 to 30 lb.
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑎𝐸
30 − 10 (100)
𝐶𝑝 =
(0.003)(30,000,000)
𝐶𝑝 = 0.0222 𝑓𝑡
 2.A heavy 30-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.06
𝑐𝑚2 has been standardized at a tension of 5 kg. If E =
2.1 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 , calculate the elongation of the tape for an
increase in tension from 5 to 15 kg.
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑎𝐸
15 − 5 (30)
𝐶𝑝 =
(0.06)(2,100,000)
𝐶𝑝 = 0.0024 𝑚
 Correction for variation in tension are seen to be significant for
ordinary taping when light tapes are used and the differences
in tension are substantial.
 When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form
of a catenary. The correction to be applied is the difference in
length between the arc and the subtending chord. For the
purpose of determining the correction, the arc may be assumed
to be a parabola, and the correction is then given by the formula
𝒘𝟐 𝑳 𝟑 𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝒔 = 𝟐
=
𝟐𝟒 𝑷 𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
𝐶𝑠 - correction between points of support, ft or m
𝑤 – weight of tape, in lb/ft or kg/m
𝑊 – total weight of tape between supports, lb or kg
𝐿 – distance between supports, ft or m
𝑃 – applied tension, lb or kg
5. CORRECTION FOR SAG