ESCI 121N

MODULE 2 (Measurements of Horizontal Distances)

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FUNDAMENTALS
OF SURVEYING
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

▪ Measure horizontal distance by Pacing

▪ Compute Pace Factor

▪ Measure horizontal distance by Taping

▪ Identify Taping methods and Taping errors

▪ Compute for taping corrections

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MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

▪ The accurate determination of the distance between two points

on any surface is one of the basic operations of plane surveying.
Such linear measurements are understood to mean the
horizontal distance.
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DISTANCE BY PACING

▪ Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a

required distance. A pace is defined as the length of a step in
walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or toe to toe.

▪ In Surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps; and if

the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the length
of a step is known.

▪ Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes preferred by

Surveyors.

▪ A stride is equivalent to two paces or double step.

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EXAMPLE
A 45 meter course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor
for the purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of
paces for each trial taken are shown in the tabulation below.
TRIAL LINE TAPED NO. OF MEAN
DISTANCE PACES
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 45.00 51 52
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
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Requirements:

▪ A. Determine his Pace Factor

▪ B. If the Surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769
paces in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of
the line?

▪ C. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m,

determine the Relative Precision of the measurement
performed.
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Solution
A. Determining the Pace Factor

L = 45 meters (Length of the Line AB)

𝑵𝟏 = 6 (Number of trials taken on Line AB)

𝑺𝒖𝒎𝟏 = (50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53) = 312 paces

𝑆𝑢𝑚1 312
𝑴𝟏 = = = 52 Paces
𝑁1 6

𝐿 45 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
PF = 𝑀 = = 0.865 m/ pace (pace factor of the Surveyor)
1 52 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
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B. Determining the Unknown Distance

𝑁2 = 6 (number of Trials taken on Line CD)

𝑆𝑢𝑚2 = ( 771 + 770 + 768 + 770 + 772 + 769) = 4620 paces

𝑆𝑢𝑚2 4620
𝑀2 = = = 770 paces (mean number of paces to walk line CD)
𝑁2 6

PD = 𝑀2 (PF) = 770 paces (0.865 m / pace) = 666.1 m (paced length of

Line CD)
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C. Determining Relative Precision

TD = 667.0 m. (Taped Distance)

PD = 666.1 m. (Paced Distance)

RP = (TD – PD) / TD = (667.0 – 666.1) / 667.0 = 0.9 / 667.0

= 1 / 741 or say 1 / 700 (relative precision of the measurement)

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TAPING

▪ Taping consists of applying known length of graduated tape

directly to a line a number of times. The two main use of tapes
are to observe unknown distances between fixed points multiple
times and laying out of known distance.
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The Procedures in Taping

▪ Aligning the Tape

▪ Stretching the Tape

▪ Plumbing

▪ Marking Pull Tape Length

▪ Tallying Taped Measurements

▪ Measuring Fractional Lengths

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The Breaking the Tape Method
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SLOPE TAPING
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H = L Cos 𝛼

Where H is the horizontal Distance between two points, L is the

measured slope length between the points, and 𝛼 is the angle of
inclination from the horizontal.

If the difference in elevation, d, between the ends of the line (or

tape) is known, the horizontal distance is computed using the
following expression derived from the Pythagorean theorem

H = √𝑆 2 - 𝑑 2
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Different Tapes Used in
Surveying

1. Engineer’s Tape

2. Invar Tape

3. Cloth Tape

4. Fiber Glass Tape

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TAPING ACCESSORIES

1. Plumb Bob

2. Hand Level

3. Range Pole

4. Tape Clamp

5. Tension Handle

6. Chaining Pins
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TAPING
CORRECTIONS
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▪ Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an

unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or
specified length. Regardless of which of these two categories is involved,
there are some corrections which are applied to the original
measurements to determine the correct or more accurate length.
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▪ Correction Due to Incorrect Tape Length

▪ Correction Due to Slope

▪ Correction Due to Temperature

▪ Correction Due to Tension

▪ Correction Due to Sag

z Corrections to taping are
applied by the use of the
following rules

▪ 1st RULE: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are applied to the observed length by adding.

▪ 2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to be laid out

with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are subtracted from
the known length to determine the corrected length to be laid
out.

▪ 3rd RULE: When measuring or laying out lengths with tape that
is “too short”, the corrections are applied opposite to those
stated in the first two rules.
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▪ “When measuring with tape too long,

add; tape too short, subtract. Do the
reverse when laying out”
 CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE
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LENGTH

▪ The absolute value for the corrections per tape length (Corr) is
determined from the difference between the true or actual length
of tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL) or

Corr = TL – NL

▪ Corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape

that is too long or too short can be determined from the following
equations
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𝑀𝐿
𝐶1 = Corr ( )
𝑁𝐿

CL = ML ± 𝐶1

Where:

𝐶1 = Total corrections to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid

out

CL = Corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out

ML = Measured length or length to be laid out

NL = Nominal length of tape.

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EXAMPLE

▪ The length of a line AB measured with a 50 meter tape is

465.285 m. When the tape is compared with a standardized
invar tape it is found to be 0.016 m. too long in almost the same
conditions of support, tension, and temperature that existed
during measurement of the line. Determine the correct length of
AB.
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SOLUTION

Given:

NL = 50 m (nominal or indicated length of tape used)

ML = 465.285 m. (measured length of line AB)

Corr = 0.016 m. (corrections per tape length, with tape being too
long)
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Solution:

𝑀𝐿
𝐶1 = Corr ( ) = 0.016 ( 465.285 / 50 ) = 0.149
𝑁𝐿

CL = ML ± 𝐶1 = 465.285 + 0.149 = 465.434 m

Note: In measuring, when the tape used is too long, the correction is added to the
measured length to determine the correct length of the line.
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CORRECTION DUE TO
SLOPE
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▪ Where:

s = measured slope distance between points A & B.

h = difference in elevation between A & B.

d = equivalent horizontal distance AC

Ch = slope correction or the difference between the slope length

and the horizontal distance, Ch = s - d
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▪ The correction for slope is derived by using the Pythagorean

Theorem. Since triangle ABC is a right triangle
𝑑 2 + ℎ2 = 𝑠 2

▪ Transposing terms and factoring out

ℎ2 = 𝑠 2 − 𝑑2 = (s – d) (s + d)

Since 𝐶𝐻 = (𝑠 − 𝑑), therefore

2
ℎ
ℎ2 = 𝐶ℎ 𝑠 + 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐶ℎ =
(𝑠 + 𝑑)
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▪ For gentle slope ( less than 20%)it is safe to assume that the slope
distance (s) is approximately equal to the horizontal distance (d) or
ℎ2
𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠
▪ For steep Slopes (between 20% to 30% slope)
ℎ2 ℎ4
𝐶ℎ = +
2𝑠 8𝑠 3
▪ The equivalent horizontal distance (d) is determined by subtracting
the slope correction 𝐶ℎ from the measured slope distance or

d = s - 𝐶ℎ
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Example

▪ Slope Distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m. and 660.97 m,

respectively. The Differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points
A and B, and 10.85 for points B and C. Using the approximate
slope corrections formula for gentle slopes, determine the
horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising
slope and BC a falling slope.
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Solution

▪ Given:

𝑆1 = 330. 49 m (slope length of AB)

ℎ1 = 12.22 m (difference in elevation between A and B)

𝑆2 = 660.97 m (slope length for BC)

ℎ2 = 10.85 m (difference in elevation between B and C)

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Solution

ℎ1 2 (12.22)2
𝑑1 = 𝑆1 - 2𝑠 = 330.49 - = 330.49 – 0.23
1 2(330.49)

= 330.26 m (horizontal length of line AB)

ℎ2 2 (10.85)2
𝑑2 = 𝑆2 - 2𝑠 = 660.97 - = 660.97 – 0.09
2 2(660.97)

= 660.88 m (horizontal length of line BC)

d = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 330.26 + 660.88 = 991.14 m (horizontal length of line ABC)

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CORRECTION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE

▪ The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as

the temperature falls. Any change in length of a tape due to
variations in temperature is critical when undertaking precise
measurements. It can also be significant even for measurements
of lower precision as in most engineering-type surveys. In
ordinary taping of short distances it is not usually considered
since the amount involved is usually small and negligible.
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▪ The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change in

temperature 𝐶𝑇 is given by the formula
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝐿 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 )

Where:

C = is the coefficient of linear expansion (0.0000116) per degree Celsius

L = is the length of the Tape

T = observed temperature

𝑇𝑆 = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized

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Example

A steel Tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/℃ is

known to be 50 meters long at 20℃. The tape was used to measure
a line which was found to be 532.28 meters long when the
temperature was 35℃. Determine the following:

a) Temperature correction per tape length

b) Temperature correction for the measured line

c) Correct length of the line

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Solution
A) Temperature correction per tape length

𝐶𝑡 = CL ( T - 𝑇𝑆 ) = 0.0000116 (50) (35° - 20°)

= +0.0087 m (Correction per tape length due to temperature. The positive sign indicates that tape is too
long)

B) Temperature correction for the measured line

𝐶𝑡 = CL ( T - 𝑇𝑆 ) = 0.0000116(532.28) (35° - 20°)

= +0.0926 m (Correction for the measured line due to temperature)

C) Correct Length of Line

𝐿′ = L ± 𝐶𝑡 ′ = 532.28 + 0.0926

= 532.37 (Correct length of measured line. The correction is added since the tape is too long)
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CORRECTION DUE TO
TENSION

▪ During calibration or (standardization) a tape is subjected to a

certain amount of standard pull or tension on its ends. When
used in the field during taping, it is elongated or shortened
accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied to it. If the
pull is greater than that for which it was calibrated, the tape
elongates and becomes too long. Correspondingly, it will stretch
less than its standard length when an insufficient pull is applied
thus, making it too short.
▪ The formula for Correction due to Tension

z 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑆 𝐿
𝐶𝑃 =
𝐴𝐸

And,

L’= L ± 𝐶𝑃

Where:

𝐶𝑃 = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction due to incorrect pull applied on
the tape.

𝑃𝑚 = pull applied to the tape during measurement

𝑃𝑠 = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated (kg)

L = measured length of line (m)

A = cross sectional area of the tape (sq. cm)

E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/𝑐𝑚2 )

L’ = corrected length of the measured line (m)

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▪ The cross sectional area may also be calculated by dividing the

total weight (W) of the tape by the product of its length (L) and
the unit weight of steel which is approximately 7.866 x 10−3 .
This is given by the following equation,

𝑊
A = 𝐿 (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
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Example
▪ A 30 meter steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length
under a pull of 5kg, supported for full length. The tape was used
in measuring a line 938.55 m long on smooth level ground under
a steady pull of 10kg. Assuming E= 2.0 x 106 kg/𝑐𝑚2 and the unit
weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10−3 kg/ 𝑐𝑚2 , determine the following:

a) Cross-sectional area of the tape

b) Correction for increase in tension

c) Correct length of the line measured

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Solution

a) Cross-sectional area of the tape

𝑊 1.45 𝑘𝑔
A= 𝐿 (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = 100 𝑐𝑚 7.9 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔
= 0.06 𝑐𝑚2
30( )( )
𝑚 𝑐𝑚3

b) Correction for increase in Tension

(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑆 )𝐿 10−5 30
𝐶𝑃 = = = +0.00125 m (Correction per tape length. The
𝐴𝐸 0.06 (2.0 𝑥 106 )
positive sign indicates that tape is too long)
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Solution
𝐶𝑝 0.00125 𝑚
=
938.55 𝑚 30 𝑚

0.00125
𝐶𝑝 = (938.55) = +0.04 m (Total correction to the measured line
30

c) Correct length of the line measured

𝐿′ = L ± 𝐶𝑝 = 938.55 + 0.04

= 938.59 m (correct length of line. The correction is added since tape is too
long.)
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CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

▪ A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and

subjected to the pull for which it was standardized. If the support
is only at its ends or at the two points measured, it will sag even
if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.

▪ Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations

since the tape length remains the same. Thus, when a stretched
tape sags, the actual distance between the points is something
less than the reading on the tape.
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▪ The magnitude of the error due to sag depends on the weight of

the tape, the unsupported length, and the tension applied. What
is given importance is the reduced chord distance between the
end graduations and not the actual sag of a tape.

▪ The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the

arc formed by the tape and the subtending chord. In determining
this correction, the arc is assumed to be a parabola, and is
computed with sufficient precision by the formula:
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𝑤 2 𝐿3
𝐶𝑆 =
24𝑃2

Since W = 𝑤𝐿 or 𝑊 2 = 𝑤 2 𝐿2, and substituting this to equation 1, we obtain

𝑤 2𝐿
𝐶𝑆 =
24𝑃2

Where:

𝐶𝑆 = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)

𝑤 = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)

W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)

L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)

P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

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Example

▪ A 30 meter tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady

pull of 8 kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag
correction and the correct distance between the ends of the
tape.
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Solution
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Solution
Given:

L = 30 m (nominal length of tape)

P = 8 kg (pull applied on ends of tape)

W = 0.91 kg (total weight of tape)

Solution:

𝑤2 𝐿 0.91 2 (30)
𝐶𝑆 = 24𝑃2 = = 0.0162 m (correction due to sag between the end supports)
24(8)2

L’ = L - 𝐶𝑆 = 30 – 0.0162

= 29.9838 m (correct distance between the ends of the tape)