FUNDAMENTALS OF

SURVEYING
ESCI 121N
MODULE 1
LESSON 1.3 Types and Sources of Errors and
LESSON 1.4 The Most Probable Value
LESSON 1.5 Measure of Precision
LESSON 1.6 Weighted Measurements
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Distinguish Accuracy from Precision

• Identify and Discuss Sources and Types of Errors in
Measurement
• Explain the Probability distribution of errors
• Compute the most probable value of
observations/measurements
 ERROR IN
MEASUREMENT
• An error is the difference between an observed
value of a quantity and its true value

𝐸 = 𝑋 − 𝑋ത
Where:
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑋 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑋ഥ = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
TYPES OF
ERRORS
• Surveying involves measurements and whenever we
measure, we make error to some degree. Below are
the two classifications of errors that affect
measurements.

1. Systematic Errors
2. Random Errors
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
• Also known as biases, result from factors that
comprise the “measuring system” and include the
environment, instrument, and observer.
• These types of errors conform to physical laws which
can be mathematically modelled; therefore,
magnitude and sign of these errors can be
calculated.
 RANDOM ERRORS
• Errors that remain in measured values after mistakes
and systematic errors have been eliminated.
• Caused by factors beyond the control of the
observer, obey the laws of probability
• Also called accidental errors.
• They are present in all surveying observations and
the magnitude and sign of these errors are not
definitely known.
 MISTAKES AND BLUNDERS

• These are observer blunders and are usually caused

by misunderstanding the problem, carelessness,
fatigue, missed communication, or poor judgement.
 EXAMPLES
• Transposition of numbers, such as recording 73.96
instead of the correct value of 79.36
• Reading an angle counterclockwise, but indicating
it as a clockwise angle in the field notes;
• Sighting the wrong target; or recording a measured
distance as 682.38 instead of 862.38
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
• INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS – these errors are due to
imperfections in the instruments used, either from faults of
their construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.
• NATURAL ERRORS – these errors are caused by variations
in the phenomena of nature such as change in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity and curvature of the earth.
• PERSONAL ERRORS – these errors arise principally from
limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of the
human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate
ACCURACY AND
PRECISION
ACCURACY DENOTES THE ABSOLUTE
NEARNESS OF OBSERVED QUANTITIES TO
THEIR TRUE VALUES WHILE PRECISION
REFERS TO THE DEGREE OF REFINEMENT OR
CONSISTENCY OF A GROUP OF
OBSERVATIONS AND IS EVALUATED BASED
ON THE DISCREPANCY SIZE.
 MOST PROBABLE VALUE

• Most probable value can be computed when

redundant observations are made. Redundant
observations are measurements in excess of the
minimum needed to determine its distance, but if the
line has been measured more than once, those
measurement in excess are termed as redundant
measurement.
• TRUE VALUE – of an observation can never be known,
even though such a value exist
• TRUE ERROR – similarly can never be found out, for it
consists of the observed minus the true value
• However, its most probable value can be calculated if
redundant observations have been made. Redundant
Observations are measurements in excess of the
minimum needed to determine a quantity.
• Most Probable Value (MPV) is the closest approximation
to the true value that can be achieved from a set of
data.
 RESIDUAL
• Having computed for the most probable value, we can
also determine the residuals. A residual is simply the
difference between the most probable value and
each individual observation.
 OCCURRENCE OF RANDOM ERRORS

• Probability is the ratio of the number of times that an

event should occur to the total number of possibilities
• It is a fraction ranging between zero and one. Zero
denotes impossibility and 1 indicates certainty.
• The sum of all probabilities for any event is 1.
 OCCURRENCE OF RANDOM ERRORS

• Assume a single tape is used to measure two point A

and B. Assume also that the tape consists a single
random error of size 1. Since the error is random, there
are two possibilities for the value of the resulting error,
+1 or -1.

• The probability of obtaining an error of 1 is ½ and -1 is

also ½ .
 OCCURRENCE OF RANDOM ERRORS

• Suppose now that in measuring distance AE, two tapes

with the same error as the previous must be placed
end to end so that the result depends on the
combination of two of these tape measures.

• Possibilities for error: -1 and -1, -1 and +1, +1 and -1, +1

and +1
• Final errors: -2, 0, +2
• Probabilities of obtaining errors: ¼ , ½ , ¼
OCCURRENCE OF RANDOM ERRORS
 OCCURRENCE OF RANDOM ERRORS

• Positive and negative errors are equal in size and

frequency (equally probable)
• Small errors are more frequent than large (they are
more probable)
• Very large errors seldom occur (they are less probable
and may be mistakes or untreated systematic errors)
MEASURE OF
PRECISION
• Precision can be measured by a quantity known as the
STANDARD ERROR or PROBABLE ERROR.
• It is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted
from the MOST PROBABLE VALUE, defines a range within
which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value
of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limits thus set.
• The determination and use of the PROBABLE ERROR in
surveying is primarily to give an indication of the
precision of a particular measurement.
 WEIGHTED
MEASUREMENT
• The number of measurements taken for a particular
quantity and by assuming that the weights are inversely
proportional to the square of the probable errors.
• In some instances weights are assigned based on the
basis of weather conditions prevailing at the time the
measurements were made.
• If a quantity is observed repeatedly and the individual
observations have varying weights, the weighted mean
can be computed from the expression.

• weighted mean
• sum of individual weights multiplied by
their corresponding weights
• sum of weights
EXAMPLE
Suppose four observations of a distance are recorded as
482.16, 482.17, 482.20, 482.18 and given weights of 1,2,2,
and 4, respectively, by the surveyor. Determine the
weighted mean.
 EXAMPLE
• Assume the observed angles of a certain plain triangle,
and their relative weights are:
• A = 49° 51’ 15”, 𝑊𝑎 =1
• B = 60° 32’ 08”, 𝑊𝑏 = 2
• C = 69° 36’ 33”, 𝑊𝑐 = 3

• Required: Compute the Weighted Mean of the Angles.

 SOLUTION
• OBSERVED ANGLES WEIGHT CORRECTION
• A = 49° 51’ 15” 1 6x
• B = 60° 32’ 08” 2 3x
• C = 69° 36’ 33” 3 2x
----------------------------- ------------- -----------
179° 59’ 56” σ 𝑊𝑇= 6 11x

11x = 4”
X = +0.36”
• NUMERICAL CORRECTION ADJUSTED ANGLE
+2.16” 49° 51’ 17.16”
+1.08” 60° 32’ 9.08”
+0.72” 69° 36’ 33.72”
------------- -----------------------------
+3.96” / +4” 180° 00’ 00”