Residual

• The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the

difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable
value or

Probable Error
• The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from
the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent
chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limits thus set.
Probable Error, PE
Relative Error / Relative Precision
• It is used to check the accuracy of a measurement and to define
the degree of refinement obtained.
• Expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the error in
the numerator and magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator.

Note: It is necessary to express both quantities in

the same units, and the numerator is reduced to
unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison
with other measurements.
Weighted Observations
• It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal
reliability under similar conditions. Many surveying
measurements are made under different circumstances and
conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability.
The problem often encountered is how to combine these
measurements and determine the most probable values. For
such a situation, it is necessary to estimate the degree of
reliability (or weight) for each of the measurements before they
are combined and the most probable values are determined.

Note: The weight is directly proportional to the

number of observations (trials) and inversely
proportional to the square of the probable errors.
Interrelation of Errors
• Summation of Errors – If several measured quantities are added, each
of which is affected by accidental errors.

where,

• Summation of Errors – If several measured quantities are added, each

of which is affected by accidental errors.

where,
Problem 1. The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured length.
b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean.
c. Final expression for the most probable length.
d. Relative precision of the measurement.
Problem 2. Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.
Problem 3. It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been
measured at different times by different observers with equal care. The values observed were
as follows: 74°39’45” (in two measurements), 74°39’27” (in four measurements), and
74°39’35” (in six measurements).
Problem 4. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different
routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine
the most probable value of the elevation of the point.
Problem 5. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and the
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

Problem 6. The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the following
measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54±0.03m, b = 234.26±0.05m, and
c = 195.70±0.04m. Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.
Problem 7. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable
errors as follows: W = 253.36±0.06m and L = 624.15±0.08m. Determine the area of the lot and
the probable error in the resulting calculation.