Engineering Surveying

Lecture 2

Baku,2020
Basic concept of Engineering Surveying
1. Surveying and Engineering Surveying, where is it needed, examples to
explain the utility, Surveying and Lay-out, Basic Measurements, Reference
Systems, Plane and Geodetic Surveying
2. Basic principles of surveying: reconnaissance, whole to part, redundancy,
check; Plotting of details: plotting accuracy, Control points, Classification
of Survey
3. Errors in measurements. Source of errors, classification of errors,
systematic and random error; Principles of adjustment, principle of
reversal, basic terms, random error distribution, Use of normal
distribution curve.
4. Use of normal distribution curve. Indices of precision, weighted
observations and measures of precision; Detecting outliers; Error
propagation
Errors and Sources
Error is generally defined as the deviation of the measured value from the “exact” value of
a quantity. The study of errors is important in surveying as it helps the surveyor understand
the sources and exercise the necessary care and apply correction to minimize their effect
so that an acceptable accuracy is achieved.
It should now be apparent that position fixing simply involves the measurement of angles
and distance. However, all measurements, no matter how carefully executed, will contain
error, and so the true value of a measurement is never known. It follows from this that if
the true value is never known, the true error can never be known, and the position of a
point known only with a certain level of uncertainty.
Error is the difference between an actual true valve and an estimate of that true value. If
the estimate is a bad one, then the error will be large
Sources: 1-Natural errors, 2-Instrument error, 3-Personal error
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least
count. Measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error
associated with the resolution of the instrument.
Classification of errors
1. Mistake/blunder or gross error: These are actually not error because they usually are so
gross in magnitude compared to the other two types. These are rather blunder made by
surveyor or his equipment and can occur at any stage of the survey (during reading,
recording computing and plotting). However, because they are large, they are easy to spot
and so deal with.
2. Systematic error: These are error types with relatively small magnitude compared to
mistakes and are result of some systems whose effect can be expressed in mathematical
relations. As they conform to mathematical and physical laws; thus it is argued that
appropriate corrections can be computed and applied to reduce their effect.
3. Random error: These are types of errors that remain after elimination of mistakes and
systematic errors. They occur because neither the surveyor nor his instruments are perfect.
They are random in their nature and are thought to have normal probability distribution.
Their effect can be greatly decreased by exercising care and vigilance by the part of
surveyors and by using high precision instruments. Random errors alone are treated by
statistical processes. N(μ, σ2).
Errors continued…
• Precision may be regarded as an index of accuracy only when all sources of error, other than
random errors, have been eliminated.
More terms…
• True error(x): can never be found, as the true value is not known
• Relative error (Rx =x /x): is a measure of the error in relation to the size of the measurement.
‘Relative error’ is an extremely useful definition and is commonly used in expressing the accuracy
of linear measurement.
• Most probable value (MPV): is the closest approximation to the true value that can be achieved
from a set of data. This value is generally taken as the arithmetic mean of a set. If A is arithmetic
mean and X is true value:
A = X – (n/n)
• Residual (r) : The residual is the difference between the MPV of a set, i.e. the arithmetic mean,
and the observed values. Using the same argument as before, it can be shown that for a finite
number of measurements, the residual r is approximately equal to the true error ε. So, it is
indication of the accuracy. Small residuals are indications of precision. High precision does not
necessarily indicate high accuracy.
History of Surveying
It is impossible to determine when exactly surveying was first used. But there are many
examples of early survey works that have done by the Babylonians and Egyptians.
Some examples of early surveying works:
•Babylonian maps on tablets(2500B.C)
•Irrigation ditches constructed in Babylon(1800B.C)
•Division of land in Egypt by surveyors known by harpedonapata (rope stretchers) using
ropes with knots to re-establish boundary marks removed by flooding of Nile river and for
the purpose of taxation(1400B.C).
•The construction of the great Egyptian pyramids using the 3:4:5 method of right-angle
setting, and a level made of isosceles triangle and plumb bob
Tools

Tape

Level Theodolite
Plumb bob

Leveling rod/level
Total Station stuff
Basic Measurements In Surveying
Basically surveying consists of the following four measurements:
1. Horizontal distance: a distance measured in a horizontal plane. If a
distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.
2. Vertical distance: a distance measured along the direction of gravity at
that point. The vertical distances are measured to determine the difference
in elevations (height) of the various points.
3. Horizontal Angle: an angle measured between two lines in a plane that is
horizontal at that point.
4. Vertical Angle: an angle measured between two lines in a plane that is
vertical at a point.
Basic Measurements In Surveying
Units of measurement: there are two systems of measurement:
1. Metric System (SI): M.K.S (meter, kilogram. second)
2. British System: F.P.S (foot, pound, second)
Basic Measurements In Surveying
Basic Measurements In Surveying
• Length : m,mm,km
• Areas: m2,mm2,hectare
• Volumes: m3 and mm3
• Plane angles: there are 3 system
1. Sexagesimal (base 60): measure angles in degrees (◦), minutes (‘) and seconds (‘’) of arc, i.e..
1◦ = 60’ and 1’ = 60’’
2. Centesimal System: In Centesimal System, an angle is measured in grades, minutes and seconds. In this system, a right angle is divided into
100 equal parts and each such part is called a Grade (1g); again, a grade is divided into 100 equal parts and each such part is called
a Centesimal Minute (1‵) ; and a minute is further sub-divided into 100 equal parts, each of which is called a Centesimal Second (1‶). In short,
• Desigrad(dg) = 0.1g
• Santigrad( c ) = 0.01g
• Miligrad ( mc ) = 0.001g
• Desimiligrad( cc )=0.0001g
3. radian : angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc on the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle, i.e.
2π rad = 360◦ = 400 gon
1 rad = 57.2957795◦ (= 57◦ 17’ 44.8’’) = 63.6619972 gon
Random Error Distribution
• The normal curve gives you the probability of occurrence
• During reporting my measurements, e.g. f I am taking 1000 observations,
then - if the observations have got only the random error - 683
observations out of 1000 will be within plus-minus 1 sigma of that. So, this
gives you a kind of confidence about your measurements.
• The standard deviation (SD) measures the
amount of variability, or dispersion, for a subject
set of data from the mean
• ±2σx= 0.955 = 95.5% probability
• ±3σx= 0.997 = 99.7% probability
Standard error of the Mean (SEM)
Measure of the precision of the mean of the set is obtained using the
standard error. If the mean and standard deviation of two set are equal, we
can only determine the precision of two sets using this method.
Standard error = /n1/2
= Standard Deviation (SD)
Standard error functions as a way to validate the accuracy of a sample or the
accuracy of multiple samples by analyzing deviation within the means. The
SEM describes how precise the mean of the sample is versus the true mean
of the population. As the size of the sample data grows larger, the SEM
decreases versus the SD. It is a measure of the precision. Error is inversely
proportional to the square root of the number of measures
Weighted Observations
Weights are expressed numerically and indicate the relative precision
of quantities within a set. The greater the weight, the greater the
precision of the observation to which it relates. Thus an observation
with a weight of two may be regarded as more precise than an
observation with a weight of one
Weights can be allocated in a variety of ways: 1-personal judgement, 2-
number of observations (wn) 3- variance or precision -2 (w1/2)
Last way gives us the closest number of observations. So, if the
observations are closer, you want to give them more weight. Weight is
proportional to the inverse of the variance.
Measures of precision for weighted data /
observations.