Measurements and errors

Lecture 3

Previous Lecture
• Introduction
• Geodesy
• Land Surveying
• Photogrammetry
• Remote sensing
• Satellite positioning
• Laser scanning

1
 This Lecture
• Measurements
• Mistakes and Errors
• Source of errors
• Types of errors
• Quality of measurements
• Error propagation
• Significant figures
Reading:
Elementary Surveying Chapter 2

Measurements
• Definition of measurements
– The process of estimating the magnitude of some
attribute of an object relative to a standard unit.
– The application of a device or apparatus for the
purpose of determining an unknown quantity
• Characteristics of measurements
– No measurements are exact
– All measurements contain errors
– A measurement is a continuous number
• Contrast to counting, which gives a discrete number

2
 Measurements
• Types of measurements
– Direct
• Direct measurement’ refers to measuring exactly the
thing that you’re looking to measure
– Taping, rope, chain
– Indirect
• Deducing the measurement from measurements of
other quantities.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑊
– Position calculated from distance and bearing
• measuring something by measuring something else
– EDM, stadia tachometry, sonar

Units
• Distance • Area
– Imperial units (Inch, feet) – Square metres
– Metric units – metre – Hectare
– Metre prefix (kilo, deci, – Acre
centi, milli) – Morgen
• Angles • Volume
– Sexagesimal – uses base 60 – Cubic metre
– DMS (˚ ‘ “), decimal degree – Tonne
– Grads/gons – litre
1 revolution
= 360°
= 2p radians
= 400 gon/grad

3
 Mistakes and Errors
• Every measuring technique is subject to
unavoidable error. A surveyor must know the
quality of their measurements and whether
they meet requirements.
• An error is the difference between a measured
quantity and its true value
=O-
True Error True value
observed
value

Mistakes and Errors

• Since the true value is never known the
following are used
– An adopted or standard value
• The most probable value in a set of observations
– Geometric laws
• Sum of internal angles of a polygon - 𝒏 − 𝟐 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
• Sum of external angles of a polygon?
– A system decided as correct by an authority
(control marks)

4
 Sources of error
• Instrumental
– Caused by imperfections in instrument
construction or adjustment and Movement of
individual parts
– Also caused by wear and tear (use over a long
period)
• Examples
– Improper graduations, wrong tape length, collimation error
• Reduced or eliminated by
– Adopting proper field procedures
– Applying computed corrections

Sources of error
• Natural errors
– caused by changing conditions in the surrounding
environment.
– Temperature, wind, moisture, gravity, etc.
• Examples
– Refraction due to different air densities
– Steel tape whose length varies due to varying temperatures

5
 Sources of error
• Personal errors
– Caused by limitations in human sense of sight,
touch and hearing
– Automation and electronics have reduced
personal errors in measurements
• Calculation error
– Due to rounding off values during the
computation process
• Example calculation of area

Calculation error
R R^2 pi Area Error
20.598 424.277604 3.14159265 1332.907
20.598 424.2776 3.14159265 1332.907 0.000
20.598 424.278 3.14159265 1332.909 0.002
20.598 424.28 3.14159265 1332.915 0.008

When calculating always carry one more

digit than the required number

6
 Types of errors
• Mistakes/blunders/Gross errors
– result into large errors and thus can easily be detected by comparing
with other types of errors
– Caused by
• confusion or carelessness of the observer
• Faults in equipment
• Use of wrong technique
• Misinterpretation
• Can be spotted by check measurements and then eliminated
– Examples
• Wrong booking, Taking incorrect readings
• Misreading the tape or staff
• Sighting wrong target
• Transposing numbers (12.34 as 12.43)
Elimination
• Careful and systematic checking of work
• Repeating measurements

Types of errors
• Systematic errors
– Are errors that follow some mathematical or physical
law. They remain constant in sign and magnitude
when observations are repeated under the same
condition. They are cumulative in nature.
– Caused by environment, instrument or observer
– Corrections:
• applying some mathematical corrections.
• Can also be removed by calibrating the observing equipment
and quantifying the errors
• Proper selection of measuring procedure/technique

7
 Systematic errors
Example errors Cause
Wrong tape length
temperature variation
Poor ranging
Poor straightening P
slope
Identify the type of error by placing
wrong tensioning I, N or P for Instrumental, Natural
Collimation error or Persornal
sag
Lack of calibration

Systematic errors
• Propagation • For example if a tape
– Cumulative 0.003m short is use n
𝜀 = 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 + ⋯ + 𝑒𝑛 times to measure a line
– If error in each it will introduce an error
observation is the same of n*0.003m.
we have
• Applying a correction
𝜀 = 𝑛𝑒 will eliminate the error

8
 Types of errors
• Random errors
– This are errors that remain in a measurement
after systematic errors and mistakes have been
removed. Magnitude and direction (sign) of the
error varies randomly, hence random/accidental
errors. They also turn to compensate. They are
caused by factors beyond the control of the
observer/surveyor.
– Random errors obey the rules of probability and
are NORMALLY distributed

• Random errors follow general Small errors more frequent

laws of probability and these

are:
frequency

Curve is symmetric
– Small errors occur more
Error

+ve and –ve errors

frequently and therefore are Same size
more frequent than large ones
– Large errors happen
infrequently and are therefore -10 0 10
Magnitude of Error
less probable, very large
errors may be mistakes and Large errors less probable
not random errors
– Positive and negative errors of • Examples
the same size are equally
– holding and marking
probable and happen with
equal frequency. – variation in tension
COMPENSATING

9
 Quality of measurements
• The quality of measurements can be found by
measuring the
– central tendency and
• Mean, Most Probable Value (MPV), average
• Median - middle number when list written in numerical
order.
• Mode – value that occurs most often
– variations in measurements
• Range
• Variance
• Standard deviation

Quality of measurements
• Accuracy
– Degree of perfection obtained in measurements
– It shows the absolute nearness of measured
quantities to their true value
– It includes systematic errors
– Since the true value is never known the following are
used
• An adopted or standard value
• Geometric laws
• A system decided as correct by an authority (control marks)

10
• Measures of accuracy

𝑂𝑛
Most probable value
𝑥=
mean
𝑛
Std error of 𝑠
𝑆𝑚 =
mean 𝑛
Relative 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
accuracy 1∶
𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Quality of measurements
• Precision
– The closeness of one measurement to another
and is concerned with random errors
– Degree of consistency between measurements
– Based on the size of discrepancies in a data set
– It is a measure of dispersion or variance

Discrepancy Difference between observations

of the same quantity

11
• Measure of precision

Residual 𝑣 =𝑂−𝑥
2
Variance 𝑣
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1

Std deviation 𝑣2
𝑠=
𝑛−1

Accurate Not Accurate

Not
Precise

You will never know if its accurate Assumed poor

Precise

The goal of data collection Caused by systematic errors

12
 Measurement contains
Systematic error

High precision
f(x) small 

1 1
Low precision
2 2 high 

x
measurements

13
 • Rejection of outliers
– blunders or mistakes result into large errors and
thus can easily be detected by comparing with
other types of errors (generally small in value).
– Maximum permissible error in an observation is ±
3.29 s for 99.9%(where s is the standard deviation
of sample distribution)
– Used to separate mistakes or blunders from the
random errors. If any error deviates from the
mean by more than the maximum permissible
error, it is considered as a gross error and the
measurement is rejected.

Confidence Interval for Normal Distribution

68.3%

-3s -2s -1s +1s +2s +3s

AREA = 95.4%

AREA = 99.7%

Empirical rule
Prob (%) 50 68.3 90 95 95.4 99 99.7 99.9
CI (±) 0.6745s 1s 1.65s 1.96s 2s 2.58s 3s 3.29s

14
 Example
# 𝑂𝑖 𝑣 𝑣2 Measure of central tendency
1 989.169 0.048667 0.002368
2 989.273 0.152667 0.023307 𝑥 = 𝑂𝑛 = 8902.0830 = 989.1203𝑚
3 989.269 0.148667 0.022102 𝑛 9
4 989.189 0.068667 0.004715 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 989.189𝑚
5 988.261 -0.85933 0.738454
𝑠 0.326
6 989.27 0.149667 0.0224 𝐸𝑚 = = = 0.1087 = 0.109𝑚
𝑛 9
7 989.186 0.065667 0.004312
8 989.282 0.161667 0.026136
Measure of central Variability
9 989.184 0.063667 0.004053
8902.083 0.000 0.847848𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.021𝑚
𝑣2 0.8478
𝑠2 = = = 0.10598 = 0.106𝑚2
𝑛−1 9−1

𝑠= 𝑠 2 = 0.10598 = 0.3255 = 0.326𝑚

Example
Number values within limit
𝐸50 = 0.6745 ∗ 0.1085 = ±0.073
989.047 − 989.1935 4 values Reject 5 values

𝐸95 = 1.96 ∗ 0.1085 = ±0.213

8 values Reject 1 value
988.908 − 989.333

𝐸99 = 2.576 ∗ 0.1085 = ±0.280

8 values Reject 1 value
989.841 − 989.400

𝐸99.9 = 3.29 ∗ 0.1085 = ±0.357

8 values Reject 1 value
989.763 − 989.477

For 𝐸95 , 𝐸99 , and 𝐸99.9 which value is rejected?

30
Recalculate the statistics after the value has been removed

15
 Redundant measurements
• Measurements in excess off those
absolutely needed to determine unknowns
• Why redundant measurements:
– They enable discrepancies to be computed
– They are the basis for preforming adjustments

Error propagation
• Propagation of Error
– Error Propagation in a Sum or a Difference of
Measurements
– Error propagation of a Series
– Error Propagation in a Product of Measurements
– Error Propagation in a Division
– Error Propagation due to the Power of a Measured
Quantity

16
 Addition and Subtraction
• When two or more quantities are added or
subtracted, the error in result (Es) is the
square root of the sum of the square of the
errors (e1, e2, .....) of the individual quantity
i.e.,

Es   e1  e1    en
2 2 2

– For example : The total distance D = (120 ± 2) mm

+ (321 ± 5) mm

Series
• When a series of similar quantities are read with
each observation being in error by the same
amount.
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑛
– It shows that random errors accumulate in
proportion to the square root of the number of
observations and they balance out.
– The equation is used to find
• Allowable error in angles of a traverse
• Allowable error in a levelling run

17
 Product
• When two or more • For example: A rectangle is
quantities are multiplied, measured 160.881 ± 0.026 cm
long and 75.007 ± 0.001 cm
the error in result (Eproduct)
wide. The error in its area
is the square root of the (12,067 cm2) is
sum of the square of the
fractional errors of the
individual quantity. Thus, 𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑
2 2
0.026 + 0.001 75.007
where EA and EB are = ±12.067 160.881

errors in observed values 𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 = ±12.067

of A and B respectively.
2 2
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐵
𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 = ±𝐴𝐵 𝐴 + 𝐵

Division
• When two or more • Example: If the area of a
rectangular plot is somehow
quantities are divided, known to be 49,650 ± 10 m2 and
the error in result is the the width dimension measured
several times found to be 175.66
square root of the sum ± 0.46 m, the calculated length
of the square of the dimension is
fractional errors in the
individual quantity.

𝐴 𝐸𝐴 2
𝐸𝐵 2
𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑣 = ± 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝐵

18
 Power
• The error in a physical quantity raised to the
power is the power times the fractional errors
in the individual quantity.
a  Ap E 2
e 
 p A 
 A 
– For example: If a sphere's radius is measured as
10.00 ± 0.08 m, the calculated volume is 4188.8
m3 and the error will be

Error in the mean

• The mean is computed from individual
observations, each of which contains an error,
therefore the mean is also subject to an error
𝐸
𝐸𝑚 =
𝑛

19
 Applications
• To analyze observations already made, for
comparison with other results or with
specification requirements
• To establish procedures and specifications in
order that the required results will be
obtained.

Significant Figures
• The number of significant digits in a
number/value.
• It is an indication of the accuracy obtained in
an observation.
• Measurements can only be accurate to the
degree that the measuring instrument is
precise.

20
• Accuracy of field data cannot be improved by
computational processes
– Addition/subtraction
• Count number of significant figures in the decimal
portion of each number in the problem.
• Add/subtract in the normal fashion.
• Round the number to the LEAST number of places in
the decimal portion of any number in the problem.
256.189 256.189
+ 10.4573 + 10.4573
256.6463 256.646
wrong correct

• Accuracy of field data cannot be improved by

computational processes
– Multiplication/division
• The LEAST number of significant figures in any number
of the problem determines the number of significant
figures in the number.

26.00
26.00
x 10.053
x 10.053
261.378
261.39

wrong correct

21
 Rules and conventions :
• All non-zero digits in a number are significant.
– Example: Numbers 0.0000216, 0.0216, 21.6 and 216 have the
same number of significant figures namely three (2, 1, 6).
• All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no
matter where the decimal point is, if at all.
– Example : In the numbers 0.0000206, 0.0206, 20.6 and 206, the
zero lying between the digits 2 and 6 is only significant.
• If the number is less than 1, the zeroes on the right of
decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero digit are
not significant.
– Example : In 0.0000206, the four zeros after decimal and before
the digit 2 has no significance. Similarly, in 0.0206, the zero after
decimal and before the digit 2 has no significance. So the
number of significant figures of these numbers are three (2, 0
and 6).

Rules and conventions :

• The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal
point are significant depending on accuracy of measurement.
– Example : In 2360 m, the terminal zero has no significance, if the accuracy of
measurement is 10 m then the number of significant figures of this number is
three (2, 3 and 6). If the accuracy of measurement is 1 m, the terminal zero is
significant figures of this same number will be four (i.e. 2, 3, 6 & 0).
• The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a
number less than 1 is never significant. However, the zeros at
the end of such number are significant in a measurement.
– Example : The number 0.120 has three significant numbers. The zero before
the decimal point is not significant.
• The terminal or trailing zeros in a number with a decimal
point are significant.
– Example : In 23.60 m, the terminal zero has significance, so the number of
significant figures in this number is four (2, 3, 6 and 0).

22
END

23