Measurements and

instrumentation
 UNIT - I

Introduction
CONTENTS:

Functional elements of an instrument – Static and dynamic characteristics of

zero and first order instruments--- Sources of errors in measurement.---
Techniques for reducing error.—loading effect of instruments.– Statistical
evaluation of measurement data.
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS
• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy and there
is always some difference between actual value or true value
and the observed vale.
• This difference is called as error.
• It is necessary to reduce this error.
• Therefore, it is instructive to know the various types of errors
and the uncertainties that are in general, associated with
measurement system.
• Further, it is also important to know how those errors are
propagated.
 Types of errors
The different types of errors can be broadly
classified as follows.
• Systematic or cumulative errors
• Accidental or random errors
• Miscellaneous type of gross errors
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
• Such errors are those that tend to have the
same magnitude and sign for a given set of
conditions.
• Because the algebraic sign is the same, they
tend to accumulate and hence are known as
cumulative errors
• This error is also called as instrument bias.
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS- Instrument errors
• Due to inherent short comings of instruments
– Poor Design / construction of the instruments
– Errors in divisions of graduated scales / calibrations
– Due to inequality of the balance arms / irregular spring constant
• Misuse of instruments
– Errors caused in measurements due to the fault of the operator
– Failure to adjust the zero of instruments / poor initial adjustments
– Using leads of too high resistance
– Using the instruments contrary to manufacturer’s instructions
• Loading effects
– Introduction of additional resistance by ammeter which may alter the circuit current
– Introduction of a thermometer alters the thermal capacity there by changes the original state
Elimination
• By selecting a suitable instrument for a given application
• Applying correction after determining the amount of instrument error
• Calibrating the instrument against a suitable standard
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS- Environmental errors

• caused due to variation of conditions external to the measuring

device, including the conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument.
• These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, wind
forces, magnetic or electrostatic fields.

Elimination
1) Conditions should be kept constant as nearly as possible
2) Using equipment which is immune to these effects
3) Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these
disturbances / applying computed corrections
4) Proper shields may be provided
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS-Observational errors
• An error on account of “Parallax” will be incurred unless the
line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer.
• There are observational errors in measurement involving
timing of an event especially when sound and light
measurements are involved since no two observers possess the
same physical response.
• Elimination
1) Parallax error is eliminated by having the pointer and
the scale in the same plane
2) Digital display of output eliminates the errors on
account of observational or sensing powers
 Accidental or Random errors
• caused due to random variations in the parameter or the
system of measurement.
• Such errors vary in magnitude and may be either
positive or negative.
– Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of
small quantities
– Presence of certain system defects such as large
dimensional tolerance / friction
– Effect of randomly variable parameters
– Some happenings or disturbances which we are unaware
are lumped together
• This error cannot be eliminated as such
 Miscellaneous type of Gross Errors

• Errors that cannot be strictly classified as either systematic or

random as they are partly systematic and partly random are termed
miscellaneous type of gross errors.
Causes
– Personal or human errors ie due to oversight / transpose the
reading
– Errors due to faulty components / adjustments like misalignment
of moving parts, electrical leakage etc.
– Improper application of the instrument like extreme vibration,
mechanical shock, electrical noise.
Elimination
• Great care should be taken in reading and recording data
• Three or more readings should be taken for quantity under
measurement
 Loading effect of instruments
• Introduction of any element in a system results invariable in extraction of the
energy from the system thereby distorting the original signal.

•This distortion may take the form of attenuation, waveform distortion, phase
shift etc. Consequently the ideal measurement becomes impossible.

• The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in

undistorted form is called the loading effect. This results in loading errors.

•The loading effects may occur on account of both electrical and mechanical
elements, these are due to impedances of the various elements connected in a
system.

•The mechanical impedances may be treated similar to electrical impedances