Dynamic characteristics:-

As input varies form instant to instant, output also varies form instant to instant. The
behavior of system of system under such conditions is called dynamic response of the
system.

1. Speed of response :- It gives information about how fast the system reacts to the changes
in the input.
2. Measuring Lag:- Every instrument takes some time to respond to the changes in the
measured variable. The retardation or delay in the response of the instrument is called
measuring lag. The lags are two types.
(a) Retardation Lag:- In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a
change in the variable has occurred.
(b) Time delay:- In this case, response begins after the application of input and is called
after “dead time”. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the
dynamic error.
3. Dynamic Error:- It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be
measured, changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system,
assuming zero static error.
4. Fidelity:- It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave
shape of input with respect to time. It also shows the change in quantity without dynamic
error.
Measurement Error
Errors occurs due to several sources like human carelessness in taking reading,
calculating and in using instrument e.t.c

Errors are classified as (1) Gross Error (2) Systematic Error (3) Random Error

1.Gross Error:- These error occurs due to the human mistakes in reading or using the
instruments.

->These errors cover human mistakes like in reading, calculating and recording etc. It
sometimes occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments.

->How to minimize the Gross errors?

(a) It can be avoided by taking care while reading and recording the measurement data.

(b) Taking more than one reading of same quantity, at least three or more reading must
be taken by different persons.
2.Systematic Errors:- Systematic errors are divided into 3 categories those are
instrumental errors, environmental errors and observational errors.

(a) Instrumental Errors:- The instrument error generate due to instrument itself. It is
due to inherent shortcoming in the instruments, misuse of the instruments, loading effect
of instruments.

-> Instrumental Errors may be avoided by

(i) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application.
(ii) Applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental errors.
(iii) Calibrating the instruments against a standard.

(b) Environmental Errors:- These errors arises as a result of environmental effects on

instrument. It includes conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the
effects of changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure.

-> These errors may be avoided by

(i) Using the proper correction factor & information supplied by the manufacturer of
the instrument.
(ii) Using the arrangment which will keep the surrounding condition constant like use
of air condition, temperature controlled enclosures etc.
(iii) Making the new calibration under the local conditions.
(c). Observational Errors:-
-> These errors occur due to carelessness of operator while taking the reading. There
are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter,
wrong scale selection, the habit of individual observer etc.

-> To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with mirrors,
knife edge pointers etc.

3. Random Errors:- Some errors are still result, though the systematic and
instrumental errors are reduced. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence, the
errors are called random errors.

-> The random errors follow the laws of probability and hence, these errors can be
analyzed statically and treated mathematically.

-> The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of observations and
using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

4. Absolute Error 5.Relative Error