GENERAL

CHEMISTR
Y 1

SENIOR
HIGH
SCHOOL
General Chemistry 1
SCIENCE
Subject TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING &
Description
Composition, structure, and properties MATHEMATICS
matter;
of quantitative principles, kinetics, and
SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
energetics of transformations of matter; and
fundamental concepts of organic chemistry Grade Level: 11
Semester: 1st/2nd
Hours/Semester: 80 Hrs.

Jens Martensson 2
Contents
UNIT SCIENCE
TECHNOLOGY
1 TO CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION ENGINEERING &
MATHEMATICS
UNIT 2
CHEMICAL CALCULATION & SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
REACTION STEM-ACADEMIC

UNIT 3
Grade Level: 11
THE GASEOUS STATE OF MATTER Semester: 1st/2nd

UNIT 4 Hours/Semester: 80 Hrs.

ATOMIC AND
MOLECULARSTRUCTURES
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 UNIT
1
INTRODUCTION
TO
CHEMISTRY
Lesson 1: Matter and Its Properties
Lesson 2: Measurements
Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Lesson 4: Mole Concept

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LESSON 1: MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Objectives:
1 2
• I will be able to describe the
particulate nature of the different forms of
matter;
• I will be able to classify the properties of
• matter;
I will be able to differentiate 3 4

substance
pure and mixtures; elements and
compounds; homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures;
5 6

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LESSON 1: MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Objectives:
1 2

• I will be able to recognize the formulas of

some common substances;
• I will be able to discuss methods to separate
the components of a mixtures; and 3 4

• I will be able to recognize chemical

substances present in some consumer products
5 6

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Activity 1: What is Matter?

MATTE
R

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Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Everything on earth has mass and takes
up space.

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 PARTICLES COMPOSING MATTER
These are the smallest unit of
matter that can’t be broken
down chemically.
ATOMS
These are particles that
These are groups of two or
have gained or lost one or
more atoms that are
more of their valence
chemically bonded.
electrons.
MOLECULES IONS
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 STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS

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Activity 2: Table Completion11
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PLASMA
THE 4TH STATE OF MATTER

• It is a hot ionized gas consisting of

approximately equal numbers of positively
charged ions and negatively charged
electrons.

• The characteristics of plasmas

significantly different from those are
ordinary neutral gases so that
of
plasmas are considered a distinct "fourth
state of matter."
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BOSE-EISTEIN CONDENSATE
THE 5TH STATE OF MATTER

• It is a state of matter in which separate atoms

or subatomic particles, cooled to near
absolute zero.
• When they reach that temperature the atoms
are hardly moving relative to each other;
they have almost no free energy to do so. At
that point, the atoms begin to clump together,
and enter the same energy states.

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 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

According to changed involved According to dependence on

during measurements of the amount of matter
property.

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE

PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
These can be measured These are the ability It does not depend These can be
and observed without of a substance to on the size or affected by the
changing the react with other amount of the size and amount
composition of the substances such as sample. of samples.
substance. air, water, and base.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
INTENSIVE PHYSICAL EXTENSIVE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
Color Melting Density Mass
Solubil Point Malleability
Volume
ity Conductivit Boiling Pt.
Length
Luster y Viscosity

Temp Odor

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 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL DESCRIPTION
PROPERTIES
1. Combustibility Whether the substance undergoes combustion or not

2. Stability Whether the substance can be easily decomposed or not

3. Reactivity Whether it reacts with acids, bases, and oxygen, gas or not

4. Relative Activity Whether the material is more active or less active than other
members of its chemical family

5. Ionization Whether it will break into charged particles when in solution

with water or not.

6. Toxicity Whether substance can damage an organism or not.

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 Activity 3
Group the characteristics of the give substance according to their
physical (extensive or intensive) or chemical properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL
SOME INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE
SUBSTANCES PROPERTI
ES

1. The water in the container

has a volume of 100 mL and
a mass of
99.8 g. It is colorless, and
tasteless. It has a density of
0.998g/mL, boils at 100
degrees Celsius, and freezes
at 0 degree Celsius. It does
not burn. It causes Iron to Jens Martensson 17
 Activity 3
Group the characteristics of the give substance according to their
physical (extensive or intensive) or chemical properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL
SOME
INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE
SUBSTANCES PROPERTI
ES

2. NaCl with a mass of 37.9 g is

colorless, odorless, and salty solid
crystals. It has melting point of 801
degree Celsius. When dissolved in
100 mL water, it conducts
electricity. It reacts with silver
nitrate to form a white precipitates.
It also react with water to form
chlorine gas, hydrogen gas, and
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 MATTE
R

PURE
It is a matter that has a definite
MIXTURES
composition and distinct properties These are composed of two or more
SUBSTANCE substances combined physically in various
composition

It contains two or It is a solid, liquid, or

It is the simplest HOMOGENEOUS
gaseous mixture that has the
HETEROGENOU
It is a mixture whose
ELEMENT
form of matter sinc COMPOU
more kinds of atom
chemically combined sameMIXTURE
proportions of its
composition
S MIXTURE varies from
eit composed of onl y one position to another
one kind of atom. ND
in definite proportion
by mass
components throughout any
given sample.
within the sample.

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Activity 4: Pure Substance or Mixture?

1. TABLE SUGAR 2. TABLE SALT

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

3. IODIZED SALT 4. DISTILLED WATER

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

4. SOFTDRINKS 5. OXYGEN GAS (TANK)

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

6. BROWN SUGAR 7. HUMAN BREATH

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Activity 5: HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

1. RUBBING ALCOHOL 2. WATER &OIL

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 HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

3. SALT & PEPPER 4. CARBONATED SOFTDRINKS

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 HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

5. HUMAN BREATH

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 SEPERATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.

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 SEPARATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.
1.Filtration is a process of separating the components of a
suspension
2.In Decantation the solid particles are allowed to settled
first at the bottom and later, the liquid which is called
supernatant is poured into another container leaving behind
solid particle.
3.Evaporation is the process of converting liquid to gas, is
useful in sorting mixtures such as salt solution.
4.Distillation is a process of separating a homogeneous
mixture composed of two substances with different boiling
points.
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 SEPARATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.
5.Magnetic Separation is the process of separating elemental
metals from other particles in a mixture.
6.Melting is a process that can be used in extricating mixture that
contain two substances with different melting points.
7.Sublimation is a process of changing solid to gas without passing
through the liquid state.
8.In Centrifugation, the mixture is poured into a special tube in the
centrifuge apparatus, and is allowed to spin using centrifugal force.
The spinning motion forces the sediments to settle at the bottom. The
liquid can be poured off from the solid particles.
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9. Chromatography is another method of separating complex mixtures. It has various
methods that can be used in separating mixture such as paper chromatography, which
makes used of an adsorbent (filter paper or chromatogram paper), then separation depends
upon the solubility of each component in the solvent.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER PRODUCT

CONSUMER PRODUCT
• It is any item often bought for consumption.
Convenience Product – those that appeal to a large segment of
the market or those that are routinely bought.

1. Household Cleaning
2. Personal Care Product

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• The most commonly used cleaning products are bleach, soaps, and
detergents. These products have different compositions, specific
uses, precautions for use, and costs.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• Bleach helps clean and whiten surfaces by generally lowering the
stability of the chemical bonds in stain molecules.
• It can convert dirt into particles that can be easily washed away in
conjunction with use of detergents.

• NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite) and H2O2 (Hydrogen

Peroxide) are most common bleaching agents that are strong
oxidizers; they can burn then skin and eyes especially if used in
concentrated form.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• Soap and Detergent are mixture of surfactants, water softeners,
stain removers, enzymes and perfumes, among others.

• Surfactants render soaps and detergents capable of lowering the

surface tension of water, which allows them to wet the surface to be
cleaned. They also loosen and disperse water- insoluble solids
making them washable with water.
• Soap and Detergents are generally not toxic and
severely
dangerous, but may cause irritation to the skin and eyes .
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34
PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS
• Personal Care product constitute a diverse group of materials that
improve the overall appearance of a person. These products are
used to generally cleanse and beautify.

Examples of highly demanded personal care products are

makeup, lotions, and toothpastes.

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LESSON 2: MEASUREMENTS
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

• I will be able to describe the need for

1 2
measurement;
• I will be able to carry out simple
measurements of length, volume, and
mass; and
3 4
• I will be able to differentiate
accuracy
the and the precision of a
measurement
5 6

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Keywords for the concepts to be learned;

a.Measurements
b.Unit of Measurements
c.Accuracy
d.Precision
e.Significant figures
f. Errors

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Measurements
• The study of matter requires a certain degree of
measurements, a process of determining
the extent of the dimensions, quantity, or
extent of something.

• Questions such as “How much….?” ,“How

long…?” and “How many…?” simple cannot
be answered without resorting to measurement.

Q1. Can you cite some situations in daily life

where a measurement is important?

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Units of Measurements

• The most convenient system of

units is the International
System of Units (SI).

• This system is the modern

versions of metric system.

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Units of Measurements
The name of the fractional parts and the multiples of the base units are
constructed by adding prefixes. These prefixes, shown in table, indicate the
size of the unit relative to the base unit.

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Uncertainty in Measurements

• A measured quantity contains some digits that are exactly known

and one digit that is estimated. The estimated digit produces
uncertainty in measurements.

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Random Error and Systematic Error
• RANDOM ERROR (indeterminate error) is the uncertainty
that arises from a scale reading which results from the uncontrolled
variables in the measurement.
• It causes one measurement to differ slightly from the next. It comes
from unpredictable changes during an experiment.
Examples
a. When weighing yourself on a scale, you position
yourself slightly different each time.
b. Measuring your height is affected by minor posture changes.

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Random Error and Systematic Error

• SYSTEMATIC ERROR (determinate error) is the uncertainty

that may come from a flaw in the equipment used or design of an
experiment. These error are usually caused by measuring
instruments that are incorrect calibrated or are
incorrect. used
• Examples
a. A worn out instrument
b. An incorrectly calibrated or tared instrument
c. A person consistently take an incorrect measurements
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Precision and Accuracy

• Precision is the consistency of a result. If you measure a quantity

several times and the values agrees closely with one another, then
your measurement is precise.; however, if the values varied widely,
then it is imprecise.

• Accuracy is determined when a certain quantitative value is

relatively close to the “true value”

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Activity 6
• Each dot is the result of a measurement whose value is indicated in the
horizontal (or x-) axis. The plot presents the results of six measurements of
the weight of a pebble whose true weight is 8.0 g.
• Determine whether each measurement is accurate or inaccurate, and precise or
imprecise.

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Activity 7

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Scientific Notation

• It is a simple way to write or keep track of very large or very

small numbers without having to deal with a lot of zeros.
• Itprovides a convenient way of recording results and
doing calculations.

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Jens Martensson 48
Activity 8

1. 0.012345698632
2. 1 230 945
3. 87 576 788 432 234 543
4. 0.O6OO789653
5. 11 987

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Significant Figures
• Significant figures are the digits in any measurement that are
known certainty with an additional one digit which is
uncertain.
RULES MEASURED NUMBERS NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
247 3

2. Zeroes between nonzero digits

are significant. 20303 5

3. Zeroes to the left of the first

nonzero digits are NOT significant 0.0200 3

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Significant Figures
RULES MEASURED NUMBERS NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT

4. If the number is less than 1, then

only the zeros at the end of the number 0.003560 4
and the zero between nonzero digits
are significant.

5. If the number is greater than 1, then

all the zeros written to the right of the
decimal point are significant. 35600.00 7

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Activity 9
Give the number of significant figures for each of the following measurements.

1. 2 365 mm
2. 309 cm
3. 5.030 g/mL
4. 0.0670 g
5. 3.60 x 10 -4

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Activity 10
Give the number of significant figures for each of the following measurements.

1. 0.476 kg
2. 89.7808 ft
3. 0.430 mg
4. 60.0 min
5. 1 x 10 7

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Rules for Significant Figures in Fundamental Operations

• In addition and subtraction, the answer must have the same

number of decimal places as the measured number with the least
number of decimal places.

• In multiplication and division, the answer must have the same

number of significant figures as the measured number with the
lowest number of significant figures.

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Activity 11
Perform the following operations and write the answers in the proper
number of significant figures.

1. 4.87 m + 36.578 m + 4.34 m

2. 8.9 mL ÷ 45 mL
3. 68.980 cm – 67.16 cm
4. 45.00 ft. x 3.00 ft.
5.14.4 g + 6.0 g
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Rules in Rounding Off

• Oftentimes, the answers to

computations contain too many
insignificant digits. Hence it becomes
necessary to round off numbers to
attain the insignificant figures.
Rounding off, therefore, is the process
of removing, insignificant digits from
calculated number.

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Rules in Rounding Off
• The following rules should be applied to round off values
to the correct number of digits.
1. For a series of calculations, carry extra digits through to the final
result, then round off.
2. If the first digit to be deleted is….
a. 5 or greater, the last retained figure is increased by one
b. 4 or less, the last retained figure is retained.

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Conversion of Units (Dimensional
Analysis)
• Dimensional Analysis is a process in which a conversion factor
written in a form of ratio is used to change units given in the data to
the units desired.

• The following are steps to be followed in doing

dimensional analysis.
a. Write the unknown quantity that is sought, including
the units.
b. Write all known conversion factors needed
c. Begin with what is known and then multiply it by
the identified conversion factor, cancelling similar units to get the
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 METRIC AND ENGLISH CONVERSIONS
QUANTITY METRIC ENGLISH CONVERSION
g, Kg lb, oz 1lb = 454 g
MASS 1kg = 2.2 lb
1 oz = 28.35g
1 in = 2.54cm
LENGTH cm, m, km in, ft, mi, Å
1 m = 39.37 in
1 ft = 12 in
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.62137
mi
11Åqt==946
10-10 mL
m
mL, L qt, pints, cups,
VOLUM tsp, tbsp, fl oz,
1 L = 1.057 qt
1 L = 2.12 pints
gal
E 1 L = 4.23 cups
1 tsp = 4.93 mL
1tbsp = 14.79 mL
1 fl oz = 29.06 mL
1 gal = 3.79 L Jens Martensson 59
Activity 12
Sample Problems!

1.The lemon juice drink contains 500.0 mg of vitamin C.

Express the vitamin C content in grams.

2.A fitness drink measures 0.300 L. Express the volume in L

3. Calculate the number of centimeters in 53.5 inches.

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Density Measurement
• Density measurement is one of the common measurements
done in the laboratory. It involves getting Mass, Volume and
Temperature of an Object.
A. Mass is the quantity of matter in the object. It is determined by
weighing the object, using balance. The SI basic unit of mass is
the Kilogram, but the gram is more convenient to use.

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Density Measurement
B. Volume is the amount of space occupied by a substance. In
liquids, the volume can be determined using a graduated cylinder,
while solids, the volume can be determined by two methods.

1. For regularly shaped-solids, the volume formula for the

particular shaped is used.
Some formula that may be used are the following:
Rectangular solid = L x W x H Cylindrical Solid = πr2h
Cubic solid = S x S x S Spherical solid = 4/3 πr3
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Density Measurement
2. For irregularly-shaped solids, the water displacement method is
used.

C. Temperature tells how hot or cold an object is. It is commonly

marked either by oC (Celsius) or o F (Fahrenheit); although the SI
basic unit for temperature is the K (Kelvin).
To convert oC or oF to K, the following are used.
• K = oC + 273.15
• K = (oF + 459.67) x 5/9

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Activity 13
Sample Problems

1.A sample amount of sugar has a mass of 250.0 g and a volume of

157.3 cm3. What is its density in grams per cubic centimeter?

2. Gold metal has a density of 19.3 g/cm3. What is the volume in

cubic centimeter of a 500.0 g bar of gold metal?

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Density Measurement
DENSITY is the ratio of the mass of an object to the volume it
occupies.

𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺
DENSITY
𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬
=
Jens Martensson 65
Activity 14
Sample Problem

1. The volume and the mass of two objects (A & B) have been
obtained in order to determine their densities, respectively. Identify
which object is denser.
OBJECT METHOD USED FOR DETERMINING THE VOLUME MASS

A By measuring its dimension 90.0 g

L = 2.0 cm, W = 2.5 cm H = 15 cm

B By water displacement method: 65.0 g

Final Volume (Water + object)
= 100 mL Initial Volume
(Water) = 80.0 mL
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Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules and
Ions OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY!

• I will be able to describe and discuss the basic

laws of chemical change;
• I will be able to discuss how Dalton’s Atomic
Theory could explain the basic laws of chemical
changes;
• I will be able to give the information provided
by the atomic number and mass number of an
atom and its isotopes

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Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules and
Ions OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY!

• I will be able to differentiate

atoms, molecules, and ions;
• I will be able to write the chemical formula of
some molecules;
• I will be able to differentiate a
molecular formula and an empirical formula;
and
• I will be able to give the name of
a compound, given its chemical formula.

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Keywords

a.Law of Conservation of Matter h. Law of Definite Proportion

b.Law of Multiple Proportion
c. Atomic number i. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
d. Isotope
j. Mass number
e. Molecule
k. Atom
f. Chemical formula
l. Ion
g. Empirical formula
m. Molecular formula

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LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

• These laws were inferred from several experiments

conducted during the 18th century using a balance for
the measurements:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
2. Law of Definite Proportion
3. Law of Multiple Proportion

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• ANTOINE LAVOISIER, a brilliant

French chemist, formulated this law by
describing one of his experiments
involving mercuric oxide.

• He placed a small amount of mercuric

oxide, a red solid, inside a retort and
sealed the vessel tightly.

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• He weighed the system, and then subjected it to high

temperature.

• During the heating, the red solid turned into a silvery

liquid. This observation indicated that a chemical
reaction took place.

• After which, the setup was cooled and then weighed.

The weight of the system was found to be the same as
before heating.

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B. Law of Definite Proportion

• A compound always contains the same constituent elements in a

fixed or definite proportion by mass.

• If water samples coming from different sources are analyzed, all the
samples will contain the same ratio by mass of hydrogen to oxygen.

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• In a chemical reaction, no change in mass takes

place. The total mass of the products is equal to the
total mass of the reactant.

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Sample Problems

• A pure sample of Sodium Flouride (NaF) contains 35g of

Sodium. How many grams of Flourine are present in this
sample?

• If there are 42g of H in a sample of pure Methane (CH4), How

many grams of Carbon are present?

• If there are 19g of oxygen in a sample of Aluminum Oxide

(Al2O3), How many grams of Aluminum are present?
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C. Law of Multiple Proportions

• If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the
masses of one element that will combine with a fixed mass of the
other element are in a ratio of small whole numbers.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• In 1808, John Dalton published his book

A New System of Chemical
Philosophy, where he proposed an
atomic theory of matter that can explain
chemical observations as predicted by the
three fundamental laws.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

1. Matter is made up of extremely small

indivisible particles called atoms.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

2. Atoms of the same element are identical,

and are different from those of other
elements.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of

more than one element, combined in
definite ratios with whole number values.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

4. During a chemical reaction, atoms

combine, separate, or rearrange. No atoms
are created and no atoms disappear.

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• During the time of Dalton, the atom was
believed to be the smallest particle
comprising substances. However, before
the end of the 19th century, experiments
provided proof of the existence of smaller
particles within the atom.

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Activity 15
• Recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic particles) and differentiate the
particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by filling up the following table:

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Activity 15
• Recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic particles) and differentiate the
particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by filling up the following table:

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• An atom of an element may be represented in a certain

configuration that includes its atomic number (Z) and Mass
number (A), written as the left superscript and left subscript,
respectively of the element symbol.
mass number (A)
4
He Symbol of Element

atomic number (Z)

2
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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• The atomic number of an element represents the number of

protons in its nucleus. Because an atom as a whole is electrically
neutral, the atomic number also specifies the number of electron
present.

ATOMIC NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS = NUMBER OF

ELECTRONS

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of

protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Thus, the mass number gives
the number of subatomic particles present in the nucleus.

MASS NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS + NUMBER OF

NEUTRONS

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Activity 16
COMPLETE THE TABLE BELOW

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Isotopes are atoms of an element having the same atomic number
but different mass number.
The existence of isotopes was shown by mass spectroscopy
experiments, wherein elements were found to be composed of several
types of atoms, each with different masses.

a.The atomic number identifies an element. The atoms of isotopes of

an element have the same number of protons and electrons.
b.The atoms of isotopes of an element differ in the number of
neutrons.

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Atoms, Molecules and Ions

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Atoms, Ions and Molecules

• Of all the elements, only six exist as single atoms, namely

Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. Most
matters are composed of ions formed from atoms.

• A molecule is a combination of at least two atoms in a definite

proportion, bound together by covalent bonds.

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Ions
• When a neutral atom gain or loses one or more electrons, it
becomes an electrically charged particles called ion.

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Ions

• Metals tend to lose electrons and become positively charged

cations. Nonmetals, on the other hand, gain electrons and become
negatively charged anions. The number of electron lost or gained
is the charged number.

• Ions can be made up of only one atom (monoatomic) or more than

one type of atom (polyatomic).

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Jens Martensson 94
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Naming Monoatomic Ions

Monoatomic ions are named based on the element.

a. For cations, the name of the element is unchanged.

• If an element can form two ions of different charges, the

name, which is usually derived from its Latin name, is
modified by the suffix –ic for the ion with the higher charge,
and –ous for that with the lower charge.

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Jens Martensson 97
Naming Monoatomic Ions
b. The monoatomic anions are named by attaching the suffix – ide
to the first few letters (root) of nonmetal name,

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Activity 17.1
Name the following cations below.

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Activity 17.2
Name the following anions below.

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• Several anions are polyatomic and are named
based on the atomic constituents and the
suffix – ide.

• The most common examples are:

a. OH- – hydroxide ion
b.CN- – cyanide ion

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• A number of polyatomic anions containing oxygen atoms
are named based on the root word of the central (or non-
oxygen) atom and the suffix –ate for the one with more
oxygen atoms and –ite for the one with less oxygen atom.

• Some anions have common names ending with the

suffix –ate.

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Jens Martensson 103
Chemical Formula
• The composition of a molecule or an ion can be represented by
a chemical formula. The formula consists of the symbols of
the atoms making up the molecule. If there is more than one
atom present, a numerical subscript is used.

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Chemical Formula
• There are two types of chemical formula - the
molecular formula and empirical formula.

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Chemical Formula

• Molecular Formula indicates the actual

number of each element in a compound.

• Emperical Formula is the simplest chemical

formula. It only shows relative ratio between the
number of atoms of the different elements
present in the compound.

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Activity 18
Write the empirical formula of the following molecules.

1. C2H4O2
2. C8H12N4
3. C8H10
4. P4O10
5. PH3

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Naming Compounds
A. IONIC COMPOUNDS (cation and anion)
1. For Binary Compounds, metal cations take their names
from the elements, while the anion take the first part of
the name of element , and add the suffix
–ide end.
CATION ANION COMPOUND NAME OF
COMPOUND

Na+ O-2 Na2O Sodium oxide

Mg+2 N-3 Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride
Al+3 O-2 Al203 Aluminum Oxide
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Naming Compounds

2. For Ternary Compounds, the cation goes first in its

name before the polyatomic ion which usually ends with
–ite or -ate
CATION ANION COMPOUND NAME OF
COMPOUND

Na+ NO3-1 NaNO3 Sodium Nitrate

Na+ NO2-1 NaNO2 Sodium Nitrite

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Naming Compounds
3. For compounds containing a metallic ion of variable
charge, either the classical method or the stock method of
naming may be used.
• In the classical method, the name of metallic ions ends in
–ous (for lower charge) and –ic (for higher charge)

• In the stock method, the metal is named first followed by

the value of the charge written in roman numeral (enclosed
in parenthesis)

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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)
• For one pair of elements that form several different compounds,
Greek prefixes are used to determine the number of each element in
the compound. For the first element, the prefixes “mono” is
omitted.

Examples:
CO – carbon monoxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide
N2O4 – dinitrogen
tetraoxide Jens Martensson 111
Jens Martensson 112
Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)
• For binary compounds, place the name of the first element; then
follow it with the second element. The second element is named by
adding –ide to the root of the element name.

Examples:
a. HCl – hydrogen chloride
b. HBr – hydrogen bromide

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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)
• For binary compounds considered as acids, use the
prefix hydro- followed it with second element. The
second element is named by adding –ide to the root of
the element name.

• Examples
a. HCl – hydrochloric acid
b. HBr – hydrobromic acid
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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)
• Oxy-acids, those that contain hydrogen, oxygen
and another element, is named in two ways:

a. For anions ending with –ate, change –ate to –ic;

then, follow it with the word acid.

b. For anions ending with –ite, change –ite to –

ous; then follow it with the word acid.
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Lesson 4: Mole Concept
OOTD: OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

• At the end of this lesson, the students must be able to

• explain the meaning of average atomic mass
• define a mole;
• illustrate Avogadro’s number with examples;
• determine the molar mass of elements and
compounds;
• calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an
element or compound, or vice versa; and
• calculate the mass of a given number of particles of
an element or compound, or vice versa.

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PERFORMANCE TASK
THIRD QUARTER – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

• History of the Atomic Structure

1. J.J Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
2. John Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
3. E. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
4. Niels Bohr’s Planetary Model
5. Schrodinger & Heisenberg Quantum Mechanical Model

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• Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store.
But she meets customers asking for 150
peanuts, another for 750 peanuts, and
another for 2,000 peanuts.

• Obviously, it will take Ms. Lilia a very long

time to count the peanuts. What would be
another way to count them?

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Jens Martensson 119
Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass
Unit
Question: Is it possible to use the same procedure to count atoms. Why
•orWwhheythneort?itis peanuts or mongo beans or candies or atoms,
the procedure should be the same.

• The problem, however, is atoms are very, very small and it is not possible to
see them and count them individually to get the average mass.
• We need to look for another way to get the average mass of the atom.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
• Experiments have shown that atoms have different masses
relative to one another.
• For example, a Mg atom is experimentally reported to be twice as
heavy as a carbon atom; a silicon atom is twice the mass of a
nitrogen atom.

• It is possible to make a relative scale if one atom is chosen as

the reference or standard atom against which the masses of the
other atoms are measured.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass
Unit
• By international agreement, the reference
atom chosen is the C-12 isotope which
contains six protons and six neutrons.
• By definition, one atom of C-12 has a
mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(amu).
• One amu, therefore, is one-twelfth (1/12)
the mass of a C-12 atom.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
• Example
• The atomic mass of Cu-63 is 62.93 amu. This means that relative to
C-12, one atom of Cu-63 is 62.93/12 or 5.244 times the mass of a
C-12 atom.

Try This!
• One atom of Se-77 is 6.410 times as heavy as an atom of C-
12. What is the atomic mass of Se-77?

Jens Martensson 123

 Average Atomic Mass
• The atomic mass of the atoms of an element is the average atomic
masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of this element.
For example
• The average atomic mass of Oxygen is 15.999, not 16.00

• The 15.999 is calculated by considering the naturally-occurring

isotopes of Oxygen, namely Oxygen-16, Oxygeny-17 and Oxygen-18

• The periodic table provides the average atomic mass which takes
into account the different isotopes of an element and their relative
abundances.
NOTE: It is not a simple average that is taken but a weighted
average Jens Martensson 124
Average Atomic Mass
• Average atomic masses are obtained by multiplying the mass of an
isotopes by its fractional abundance, as shown as follows.
ELEMENT MASS NUMBER ISOTOPIC MASS % ABUNDANCE AVERAGE
ATOMIC MASS

16 15.9949 u 99.76%
Oxygen 15.999 u
17 16.9991 u 0.04%

18 17.9992 u 0.20%

• Isotopes of elements occur in different abundances. Some are more abundant

than others.
1. Chlorine has two isotopes. The natural abundance of Cl-35 is 75% while
that of Cl-37 is 25%. This means that if you have 100 atoms of chlorine, 75
of them will be Cl-35 and 25 of them will be Cl-37.
Jens Martensson 125
2.Magnesium, on the other hand, has three isotopes with varying
abundances: Mg-24,Mg-25, and Mg-26, 11.01 have 78.99%, 10.00%,
and 11.01% abundance, respectively.
3. For carbon, the natural abundance of C-12 is 98.90% while that
of C-
13 is 1.10%. The atomic mass of C-13 has been determined to be
13.00335 amu while that of C-12 is exactly 12 amu.

• Relative Atomic Mass is the ratio of the average atomic mass of

an atom to one atomic mass unit (amu) Hence, its value is similar
with average atomic mass, except that it has no unit.

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Activity 19

1. Copper has two stable isotopes with the following

masses and % abundances: Cu-63 (62.93 amu,
69.09% abundance) and Cu-65 (64.9278 amu,
30.91% abundance). Calculate the average atomic
mass of copper.

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The Avogadro’s Number
• In the SI system, the mole (mole) is defined
as the amount of substance containing the
same number of particles as there are atoms
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.

• One mole of a substance is equivalent to

the Avogadro’s number of particle - 6.02 x
1023

• This number is so-named in honor of the

Italian scientist, Amadeo Avogadro

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The Avogadro’s Number
• Thus, based from the definition. It can be said
that
a. One mole of an element is numerically equal to
its
atomic mass unit.

b. One mole of an element contains 6.02 x

1023 atoms

c. One mole of molecular compound contains

6.02 x 1023 molecules

d. One mole of ionic compound contains 6.02 x

1023 cations and 6.02 x 1023 anions Jens Martensson 129
Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound (molecular or ionic) is the

mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is numerically
equal to the sum of the masses of the elements (in amu) that
make up the compound.

• The molar mass is obtained by multiplying the number of

atoms by the atomic mass of each element, and getting the
sum. The unit for molar mass is g/mol.

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Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound (molecular or ionic) is the

mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is numerically
equal to the sum of the masses of the elements (in amu) that
make up the compound.

• The molar mass is obtained by multiplying the number of

atoms by the atomic mass of each element, and getting the
sum. The unit for molar mass is g/mol.

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Activity 20

• Calculate the molar mass of the following compounds

1. C3H5N3O9

2. (NH2)2 CO

3. Hg(OCN)2
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Formula Mass and Molecular Mass
• Formula Mass is used for compounds that exists as ions, such as NaCl. It is
expressed in amu or u, and is numerically equal to the molar mass expressed
in grams per mole of a substance.
IONIC COMPOUND COMMON NAME MOLAR MASS FORMULA MASS

NaCl Table Salt 58g/mol 58 amu

CaO Quicklime 56g/mole 56 amu

• Molecular Mass is used for compounds that exist as molecules, such as

water (H2O) It is numerically equal to the molar mass and has a unit amu.
MOLECULE COMMON NAME MOLAR MASS MOLECULAR MASS

CO2 Dry Ice 44g/mol 44 amu

C12 H22 O11 Dextrose 342g/mole 342 amu

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Calculation Involving Formulas
• The Avogadro’s number and molar mass are important to enable conversions
between mass and moles of atoms or molecules, ion and vice versa. The
following are the conversion factors that can be used in calculations involving
formulas.

• Where X represents the symbol of atoms, ions, or the formula of the

compound.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
and
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 6.23 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑋 (𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
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Sample Problems
A. Conversion between atoms, molecules, or ions and mass
1.Zinc is an essential mineral that is naturally occurring
found in foods and is also available as dietary
supplement. How many atoms are in 16.5 g of Zinc?

2. Ammonia (NH3) is used for fertilizers and many

other things. How many molecules of ammonia are
present in 0.334 g of ammonia?
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Sample Problems
B. Conversion between mass and moles
1. Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) is a main component of
explosive mixtures used in mining, quarrying, and civil
construction. If an explosive contains 345.0 g of
ammonium nitrate, how many mole of ammonium nitrate
are present in the explosive?

2. Copper is used for the absorption and used of iron in the

formation of haemoglobin. How many grams of Cu are
present in 3.87 mol copper?
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