Lesson 1: Matter and Its Properties

What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, composition, and structure and
the changes it undergoes. It is central to our fundamental understanding of many
science-related fields.

History of Matter

 Anaximenes – air
 Thales of Miletus – water
 Heraclitus – fire
 Empedocles – 4 fundamental elements: earth, water, fire, air. “Law of constant
properties”
 Leucippus – matter consist of atoms
 Democritus – matter consist of atoms
 Epericus – agreed to Leucippus and Democritus. He said that atoms have the
same speed regardless to their sizes
 Aristotle – agreed to Empedocles. Added the 5th fundamental elements, the
extraterrestrial altbier.

Leucippus and Democritus Theory

 Atoms are completely solid.

 It can’t be seen by naked eye
 Atoms are uniform with no internal structure
 Atoms are in constant motion around an empty space called VOID
 Comes in different shapes and sizes.

Atomic and Molecular Perspective

 Matter – Anything that has mass and occupies space.

 Atom – The smallest stable building block of matter.
 Molecule – Groups of atoms held together with a specific connectivity and
shape.
 Composition - the types of atoms that are present in a compound and
the ratio of these atoms (for example H2O, C2H6O).
 Structure - how atoms are connected (bonded) to each other, how far
apart they are, and the shape of the molecule.
Methods of Classification of Matter

 State of Matter – Physical state is gas, liquid, or solid.

 Composition of Matter – Element, compound, or mixture.

States of Matter

1. Gas (vapor) – has no fixed volume or shape, uniformly expands to fill its
container, compressible, flows readily, diffusion occurs rapidly.
2. Liquid - has a distinct volume independent of its container, assumes the shape of
the portion of the container it occupies, not readily compressible, diffusion occurs
but slower than a gas.
3. Solid - has both a definite shape and definite volume, not readily compressible,
diffusion occurs extremely slowly.
4. Plasma – ionized gas consist of equal numbers of positive and negatively charge
electrons.
Examples: Lightning and Aurora Borealis

Phase Transition of Matter

Transition is a physical change where the substance undergo changes without

changing its chemical composition.

1. Sublimation
Occurs when a solid changes directly to a gas without passing through
interacts liquids phases.
2. Deposition
Occurs when a gas changes directly to a solid without passing liquid
phase.
3. Melting
Occurs when a solid changes directly to a liquid.
4. Freezing
Occurs when a liquid changes to a solid.
5. Condensation
Occurs when a gas changes directly to a liquid.
6. Vaporization
Happens when a liquid changes directly to a gas. One of the example of
vaporization is boiling, a liquid is heated to its boiling points and evaporation,
increased temperature, decreased pressure.
7. Recombination
Occurs when plasma changes to gas.
8. Ionization
 Occurs when a gas changes to plasma. It is a process by which an atom or
a molecules acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons
to form ions.

 Bose – Einstein Condensate – a state of matter of a dilute gas of boson cooled to

temperatures very close to absolute zero kelvin.

Properties of Matter

1. Physical Properties
Some properties can be readily measured with our senses, e.g. odor and
color, instruments are needed to measure other properties, such as electrical
resistivity, hardness, melting point, boiling point, density, mass, volume, etc.
Physical changes are changes in matter that do not change the
composition of a substance. Examples include changes of state, temperature, and
volume.

Independent of the amount

of the substance that is
Intensive Properties present.
• Density, boiling point, color,
etc.

Physical Properties

Dependent upon the amount

Extensive Properties of the substance present.
• Mass, volume, energy, etc.

2. Chemical Properties
Describe the reactivity of a substance toward other substances. Examples include:
 Ethanol burns in air (reacts with oxygen)
 Sodium reacts vigorously with water
 Corrosion of metal parts (rust)
 Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is explosive.
Chemical changes result in new substances. Examples include combustion,
oxidation, and decomposition.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

Elements

Pure Substance

Compound
 Heterogeneous
Mixture
Mixture
Homogeneous
Mixture
Pure Substance

Matter that has a fixed composition and distinct properties. Made of only one
type of atom or only one type of molecule. All substances are either elements or
compounds.

1. Elements
All atoms are the same kind, elements have only one type of atom. e.g.
oxygen (O2), gold (Au), silicon (Si) and diamond (C).
2. Compounds
Contains more than one type of atom, but all molecules (or repeat units)
are the same, e.g. water (H2O), ethanol (C2H6O), quartz (SiO2), sodium chloride
(NaCl).

Mixture

Have variable composition and can be separated into component parts by

physical methods. Mixtures contain more than one kind of molecule, and their properties
depend on the relative amount of each component present in the mixture.

1. Homogeneous Mixture
Composition and properties are uniform, also called a solution.
Examples: are Air (principle components include O 2, N2 & CO2), Vodka (principle
components are ethanol and water), Brass (solid solution of Cu and Zn), Ruby
(solid solution of Al2O3 and Cr2O3), etc.
a. Solute – the one being dissolved
b. Solvent – one who dissolved (dissolving medium)
 Saturated solution – no more solutes dissolves
 Unsaturated solution – more solute dissolves
 Supersaturated solution – becomes unstable, crystals forms

2. Heterogeneous Mixture
Composition and properties are non-uniform or with particles not evenly
distributed and mostly visible.
Examples:
 Chocolate Chip Cookie – Chocolate, Dough, etc.
 Concrete – Cement, Rocks, etc.
 Nachos – Chips, cheese, jalapeños, salsa, etc.

METHODS ON SEPARATING MIXTURES

1. Mechanical separation
Often used by hand. Takes advantage of physical properties as color and
shape.
 Examples:
 Recycling plastic
 Paper
 metal
2. Magnetic separation
Takes advantage of the physical property of magnetism.
Examples:
 Separating metals in a scrap yard
3. Filtration
Takes advantage to the physical properties of the state of matter. A
screen lets the liquid particles through, but traps the solid particles.
Examples:
 Filter coffee
 Spaghetti
4. Decanting
To pour off a liquid and leaving the solid behind. Takes advantage to the
differences in density.
Examples:
 To decant a liquid from a precipitate or water from rice.
5. Distillation
The separation of mixture of liquids based on physical properties of
boiling point.
Examples:
 The distillation of alcohol or oil.
Types:
 Simple distillation – different boiling point
 Fractional distillation – same boiling point

6. Evaporation
Vaporizing a liquid & leaving the dissolved solids behinds. Ex separating
salt solution.
Examples:
 Obtaining sea salt from sea water
7. Density separation
More dense components sink to the bottom & less dense component
float. The components cannot be soluble within each other.
8. Centrifuge
Circular motion helps denser component to sink to the bottom faster.
Examples:
 The separation of blood or DNA from blood
9. Paper chromatography
 Uses the property molecular attraction (molecular polarity) to separate
mixture. Different molecules have varying molecular attractions for the paper
(stationary phase) versus the solvent (the mobile phase).
Examples:
 Separation of plant pigments and dyes
10. Fractional crystallization
Dissolved substance crystalize out of a solution one their solubility limit is
reached as the solution cools.
Examples:
 Growing rock candy or the crystallization of a magma chamber.

Lesson 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Democritus (Greek philosopher) believed that there was a smallest particle—

“atomos” (uncuttable)—that made up all of nature.

Robert Boyle (Skeptical Chemist) defined elements as a simplest composition of

matter that can’t be broken down further by any chemical means. He stressed out that
the basic nature of elements changes if they decomposed chemically. He also suggest
that atoms of elements combine to form “compounds”.
 Experiments in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to an organized
atomic theory by John Dalton in the early 1800s, which explained several laws known at
that time:

 The law of definite composition

 The law of conservation of mass
 The law of multiple proportions

Antoine-Laurant Lavoisier (father of modern chemistry). He believed that

substance is contain of illusive element called Phlogiston. Determined that hydrogen
wasn’t an inflammable gas but an element. He named hydrogen (hydro – generated). He
determined that oxygen is involved in combustion and respiration. He formulate the Law
of Conservation of Mass. Joseph-Louis Proust established the Law of Definite
composition. John Dalton proposed the Law of Multiple Proportions.

FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

States that “matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.” In a chemical reaction, the mass of the substances produced is equal to
the mass of substance reacted.
2. Law of Definite Composition
States that “the relative’s numbers and kinds of atoms in a compound are
constant.” Any given sample of a given compound will always be composed of
the same elements in the same proportion by mass.
3. Law of Multiple Proportion
States that “a given quantity of an element may combine with different
quantities of another elements to form different compounds.
TIMELINE OF ATOMIC MODELS

1. Solid Sphere Model (1808)

It was discovered by John Dalton. He described that matter is made of
indivisible atoms. Atoms are arrange in different combinations to make different
compounds.
2. Plum Pudding Model (1904)
It was discovered by Joseph-John Thompson. He discovered electrons
using cathode ray tube experiment. Electrons reside within a sphere of uniform
positive charge.
3. Nuclear Model (1911)
Ernest Rutherford performed
the gold foil experiment. He discovered
the existence of positively charged
nucleus.
4. Orbit / Planetary Model (1913)
Neil’s Bohr refined Rutherford’s idea by adding that the electrons were in
orbit at different energy level. He fixed circular orbits around the nucleus for
electrons.
5. Quantum Mechanical Model (1926)
It was discovered by Ernst Schrodinger and Werner Heisenberg. Electrons
are in probability zones called “orbitals”, not orbits and the location cannot be
pinpoints.
6. Quantum Mechanical Mode with Protons + Neutrons
 Protons: Ernest Rutherford (1919)
 Neutrons: James Chadwick (1932)
7. Modern Atomic Theory
 Electrons Cloud Model of the Atom
Lesson 3: Atomic Mass

Atomic Structure

 Nucleus – dense part of an atom

 Molecules – formed when nonmetal shared electrons

The Subatomic Particles

a. Protons (+)
b. Neutrons (0)
c. Electrons (-)

Atomic Number (Number of Protons)

 Equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. All atoms of the same
element have the same number of protons. Denoted by “Z”.

Mass number (Protons + Neutrons)

 Equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons for an atom.
Number of particles in nucleus

Atomic Mass / Weight – average masses of isotopes

Remember:

Atomic number = number of protons Number of electrons = number of protons

Mass number = protons + neutrons Neutrons = mass number - atomic number

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. Isotopes have
different numbers of neutrons, thus different mass numbers.

Examples of Isotopes:

S-33 – 95%

S-33 – 0.76%

S-34 – 4.22%

Note: change percentage to decimals

Solution:

= 0.95(32 amu) + 0.0076(33 amu) + 0.0422 (34 amu)

= 30.4 amu + 0.250 amu + 1.438 amu

Ave. atomic weight = 32.08 amu

IONS
 Atoms of a group of atoms with a charge. Net charge: how the electrons and
protons balance each other.

 Cations (+) – positively charge ions

 Anions (-) – negatively charge ions

Examples:

Isotopes name Iodine -131 Phosphorus – 31

Chemical symbols
I-
w/ net charge

Atomic # 37

Mass #

# of protons 13

# of neutrons 14 49

# of electrons 10 18 36

Naming Compound

Nonmetals gain/accept electrons. This give them a negative (-) charge.

Negative ions are called anions.

Metals lose/donate electrons. This gives them a positive (+) charge. Positive
ions called cations.

Rules in Naming Ions

Na → Na+ + e-
Sodium Sodium Electrons
 1. When metals lose electrons they become ions, but their name does not change.

F → e- + F-
Fluorine Fluoride
2. When non-metals gain electrons they become ions, and their names does
changes.

Remember:

1. The names of metal do not change

2. Changing the name of non-metals: root of element name + -ide = name of ion
Example:
The name of chlorine’s ion:
chlor- + -ide = chloride
The name of Nitrogen’s ions:
Nitr- + -ide = nitride

Strontium Nitrate

Sr+2 NO3
Sr (NO3)2
Iron (III) Oxide

Fe+3 O2
Fe2O3

Chemical Formula