U5

Properties and Structures of

Chemical Compounds

Honors Chem 111

 Chemical Bonds
 A bond is a force that holds groups of two or
more atoms together and makes them
function as a unit.
 In losing, gaining, or sharing electrons to
form chemical bonds, atoms tend to acquire
the electron configurations of noble gases.
 Bond energy is the amount of energy
required to break a particular bond.
*determines the strength of a bond
 Bonding Review
 What type of elements form ionic bonds?
 Metal and Nonmetal
 What type of elements form covalent bonds?
 Nonmetal and Nonmetal
 What type of elements form metallic bonds?
 Metal and metal
REVIEW
Formation of Ionic Bond

Formation of Covalent Bond

REVIEW
Covalent Bonding

Difference in EN smaller than

in ionics and is usually < 1.7
REVIEW
REVIEW

 NonPolar Bond:
no difference in EN values.
(equal sharing)
REVIEW

Bond Polarity
Polar Bonds:
Have a difference in EN

values (unequal sharing)

Ex: H Cl
EN=2.2 EN=3.2
REVIEW
Bond Polarity
Ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of types of bonding.
Ionic > Polar Covalent > Non-Polar Covalent

NaCl Cl2

HCl
REVIEW
Electronegativity & Polarity
 The polarity of a bond depends on the difference between the
electronegativity values of the atoms forming the bond.

Difference of Zero Non-polar Covalent Bond

Intermediate Difference Polar Covalent Bond

(greater than .4 to 1.7)
Large Difference Ionic Bond
(greater than 1.7)
 Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonding occurs when there is an attraction between
oppositely charges ions. Electrons are transferred to form
oppositely charged ions.
 Forms between metal and non-metal
 Electronegativity difference > 1.7
 Ionic – transfer of e- and attraction of ions
 Ionic compounds are called Salts or Crystals
Drawing Bond Structures for
COVALENT COMPOUND
 REVIEW

Lewis Symbols (Electron Dot Symbols)

• In a Lewis symbol, the chemical symbol for the element
represents the nucleus and core electrons of the atom.
• Dots around the symbol represent the valence electrons.
• In writing Lewis symbols, the first four dots are placed singly on
each of the four sides of the chemical symbol.
• Dots are paired as the next four are added.
• Lewis symbols are used primarily for those elements that
acquire noble-gas configurations when they form bonds.
 Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules

• A Lewis structure is a combination of

Lewis symbols that represents the
formation of covalent bonds between
atoms.
• Lewis structure shows the bonded atoms
with the electron configuration of a noble
gas; that is, the atoms obey the octet rule.
 Lewis Structures
• The shared pairs of electrons in a molecule are called
bonding pairs.
• In common practice, the bonding pair is represented
by a dash (—).
• The other electron pairs, which are not shared, are
called nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs.

Each chlorine atom sees

an octet of electrons.
 Multiple Covalent Bonds
• The covalent bond in which one pair of electrons is
shared is called a single bond.
• Multiple bonds can also form:
In a double bond two pairs
of electrons are shared.

In a triple bond three pairs

of electrons are shared.
Note that each atom obeys the octet rule,
even with multiple bonds.
 Writing Lewis Structures: A Protocol
1. Add up the number of valence electrons from all atoms.
IONS: negative, add e- ; positive subtract e-
2. Divide by 2: ___/ 2 = # of electron pairs
3. Put the least electronegative atom in the middle, called the
central atom, (H cannot be the central atom) and attach all
other atoms as terminal atoms. Use one pair of electrons for
each bond.
4. Place lone pairs around terminal atoms. (never around H)
5. Place any lone pairs left on the central atom.
6. Check for ALL atoms to be satisfied. (H needs 2e-; others need 8e-)
Electron deficient atoms: Be (needs 2 pr), B (needs 3 pr)
Expanded Octet: S, P, Xe (more than 8 e- or 4 pr)
Free radicals ( 1 e-, not a pair)
7. Use multiple bonds (double, triple) if needed.
8. Bracket and place charge for IONS.
 BOARD Examples: use noteguide
Write a plausible Lewis structure for, CH4.
Write a plausible Lewis structure for CFl4.
Write a plausible Lewis structure for NH3.
Write a plausible Lewis structure for BF3.
Write a plausible Lewis structure for CO2.

Write a plausible Lewis structure for SF6.

Write a plausible Lewis structure for PO43-.

Write a plausible Lewis structure for C2H6.

 Resonance: Delocalized Bonding
• When a molecule or ion can be represented by two or more
plausible Lewis structures that differ only in the distribution of
electrons, the true structure is a composite, or hybrid, of them.
• The different plausible structures are called resonance
structures.
• The actual molecule or ion that is a hybrid of the resonance
structures is called a resonance hybrid.
• Electrons that are part of the resonance hybrid are spread out
over several atoms and are referred to as being delocalized.

Three pairs of
electrons are
distributed among
two bonds.
 Resonance Structures
 Molecules that can’t be correctly represented by
a single Lewis diagram.
 Actual structure is an average of all the
possibilities.
 Show all possible structures separated by a
double-headed arrow.
 Resonance Structures example: three
possible places for the double bond
SO3
O O
O S O O S O
O
O S O
C. Johannesson
 BOARD Example: use noteguide
Write three equivalent Lewis structures for the below
molecules that conform to the octet rule.

Write the Lewis structure for CO3-2

Write the Lewis structure for O3

 VSEPR
 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
is a simple method for determining geometry or 3D.
 Basis: pairs of valence electrons in bonded atoms
repel one another.
 These mutual repulsions push electron pairs as far
from one another as possible.
 Lone pairs repel more than bonded pairs
When the electron
B B pairs (bonds) are as
far apart as they can
B A B A get, what will be the
B-A-B angle?

B B
 Based on the regions occupied
around the central atom by bonded
atoms. Angles between atoms are
Based on the influenced by lone pairs
regions occupied
around the
central atom by
bonded atoms
and lone pairs
 Molecular Geometry

 Molecular
Geometry A carbon
dioxide
 is simply the shape molecule is
linear.
of a molecule.
 is found using the
Lewis structure.
 LEWIS is 2D but
molecules are 3D A water
molecule is
angular or
bent.
Two Attachments
Linear
Three Attachments
Trigonal Planar
No
lone
pairs

Lone
pair
Four Attachments
Tetrahedral

No
lone
pairs

1
lone
pair

2
lone
pairs
 Five Attachments
Trigonal Bipyramidal
Lone
pairs

No
lone
pairs
 Six Attachments
Octahedral

No
lone
pairs

Lone
pairs
 Molecular Polarity
Determining Molecular Polarity
 Depends on:
 Polar bonds dipole moments
 molecular shape
 Although most bonds within a molecule may be polar,
the arrangement of these bonds may cause the
overall molecule to be non-polar.
 IDENTICAL dipoles (same elements b/w bonds) can
cancel at specific angles or combination of the
following. 2 @ 180o 3 @ 120o 4 @ 109.5o
 Dipole Moment
 Direction of the polar bond in a molecule.
 Arrow points toward the more electronegative
atom.

 + H Cl
 -
 Determining Molecular Polarity
 Nonpolar Molecules
 Dipole moments are symmetrical and cancel out.
BF3
F

F F
 Determining Molecular Polarity
 Polar Molecules
 Dipole moments are asymmetrical and don’t cancel .

O
net
H2O dipole
H H
moment
 Determining Molecular Polarity
 Therefore, polar molecules have...
 asymmetrical shape (lone pairs) or
 asymmetrical atoms

net
CHCl3 dipole
Cl Cl
moment
Cl
Molecules: polar or non-polar
 Solubility
“Like Dissolves Like”

 Polar Molecules dissolve in

polar solvents as they are
attracted to them
 like H2O, CHCl3, NH3 etc.

 Non-polar Molecules
dissolve in non-polar solvents
 like hexane, CCl4
 Polarity and Solubility
 Nonpolar solvents
 Cannot dissolve ionic compounds
 The attraction among the ions is much stronger than the
attractions among the separated ions
 Can dissolve nonpolar substances
 Polar solvents (e.g. water)
 Can dissolve ionic compounds and polar covalent
compounds because the ions can be attracted to the
solvent and stay dissociated

Like dissolves like

Describing Bonds for
COVALENT COMPOUND
 Sigma and pi bonds in double and triple bonds

9-42
Sigma and pi bonds in multiple bonds

9-43
 Sigma and pi bonds in double and triple bonds

9-44
Sigma and pi bonds in multiple bonds

9-45
 Overlap and Bonding
• We think of covalent bonds forming through the sharing of electrons by
adjacent atoms. In such an approach this can only occur when orbitals on
the two atoms overlap.

Hybrid Orbitals
• Mixing the s and p orbitals yields two degenerate orbitals that are hybrids of
the two orbitals.
– These sp hybrid orbitals have two lobes like a p orbital.
Hybrid the hybridization state of the atom is
based upon the electron-domain
Orbitals geometry
 Hybridization Practice
What is the hybridization of the central atom of each of the
following?
•Count the electron domains:
2 sp 3 sp2 4 sp3 5 sp3d 6 sp3d2
 Delocalized Electrons: Resonance
The organic molecule
benzene has six  bonds
and a p orbital on each
carbon atom.
• In reality the  electrons
in benzene are not
localized, but delocalized.
• The even distribution of
the  electrons in
benzene makes the
molecule unusually
stable.
 Synthesis Question 1
• The basic shapes that we have discussed are present in
essentially all molecules. Shown below is the chemical
structure of vitamin B6 phosphate. What is the shape and
hybridization of each of the indicated atoms in vitamin B 6
phosphate? 5

4
H O
O H2 C
O
P C OH
O
O
+
N CH 3
2
H
1
3
 Synthesis Question 1
trigonal planar sp2 5

4 bent or angular sp3

H O
O H2 C
O
P C OH
O
O
+
N CH3

trigonal planar sp2 1 H

3 trigonal planar sp2

2 tetrahedral sp3
 Group Question 1
• Shown below is the structure of penicillin-G.
What is the shape and hybridization of each of
the indicated atoms in penicillin-G?
5 6
3 4
2

H S CH 3
H O NH
H CH C C
CH 3
7
C C N CH
1 C CH 2 C
C OH
O
H C C O
H
H
9
8
10
Energy in Ionic compounds
REVIEW

Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds do not
form molecules; they
form a crystal lattice
 The green spheres are
Na+ and the red spheres
are Cl –
 The smallest ratio,
NaCl, is called a
formula unit
Lattice energy (E)
is the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid
ionic compound into gaseous ions.

The strength of the electrostatic attractions

between ions is measured by the lattice
energy, which increases
with ionic
charge and decreases with
distance between ions.
 Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy
Lattice energy (E) is the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid
ionic compound into gaseous ions.

Q+ is the charge on the cation

Q- is the charge on the anion

r is the distance between the ions

Lattice energy (E) increases as Q

increases and/or
as r decreases. r F < r Cl

56
 Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy
As ionic size increases, lattice energy decreases. Lattice energy
therefore decreases down a group on the periodic table.
Trends in lattice energy.
 Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds tend to be hard, rigid, and

brittle, with high melting points.
 Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in
the solid state.
 In the solid state, the ions are fixed in place in

the lattice and do not move.

 Ionic compounds conduct electricity when
melted or dissolved.
 In the liquid state or in solution, the ions are

free to move and carry a current.

Why ionic compounds crack
 Electrical conductance and ion mobility.

Solid ionic Molten ionic Ionic compound

compound compound dissolved in water
Table 9.1 Melting and Boiling Points of Some Ionic Compounds

Compound mp (°C) bp (°C)

CsBr 636 1300

NaI 661 1304
MgCl2 714 1412
KBr 734 1435
CaCl2 782 >1600
NaCl 801 1413
LiF 845 1676
KF 858 1505
MgO 2852 3600
Formation of ionic
compounds

The exothermic formation of sodium bromide.

Na(s) Br2(l)

NaBr(l)
 Energy Level Diagram of Born Haber Cycle

John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 211 Chapter 9-65
ENERGY of IONIC COMPOUNDS : The Born-Haber cycle for LiF
BORN-HABER CYCLE AND LATTICE ENERGIES

1. Sub of the metal K(s)  K(g)  89.2 kJ

2. Dissociation of chlorine 1/ 2 Cl2(g)  Cl(g)  122 kJ
3. Ionization of potassium K(g)  K   e  418 kJ
4. Formation of chloride ions (Eea) Cl  e  Cl  348.6 kJ
5. Formation of solid KCl K(g)  Cl(g)  KCl(s)  715 kJ
Sum reactions and energies K(s)  1/ 2Cl2(g)  KCl(s)  434.4 kJ
 LATTICE ENERGIES AND PERIODICITY
• Lattice energy can also be zz
E k 1 2
determined from Coulomb’s law: d
Coulomb’s Law
– Directly proportional to charge on
each ion. Lat. E, Lat. E,
kJ/mol kJ/mol
– Inversely proportional to size of LiF 1030 MgCl2 2326
compound (sum of ionic radii). LiCl 834 SrCl2 2127
• Table (right) presents the lattice LiI 730 MgO 3795
energies for alkali and alkaline earth NaF 910 CaO 3414
ionic compounds. The lattice energies NaCl 788 SrO 3217
– decrease for compounds of a NaBr 732 ScN 7547
particular cation with atomic NaI 682
number of the anion. KF 808

– decrease for compounds of a KCl 701

KBr 671
particular anion with atomic 8–68
CsCl 657
number of the cation.
CsI 600
Chapter 9-68
Energy in Bonds for
COVALENT COMPOUND
 Properties of a Covalent Bond
The bond order is the number of electron pairs being
shared by a given pair of atoms.
A single bond consists of one bonding pair and has a
bond order of 1.
The bond energy (BE) is the energy needed to
overcome the attraction between the nuclei and the
shared electrons. The stronger the bond the higher the
bond energy.
The bond length is the distance between the nuclei of
the bonded atoms.
 Trends in bond order, energy, and length

For a given pair of atoms, a higher bond order results

in a shorter bond length and higher bond energy.

For a given pair of atoms, a shorter bond is a stronger

bond. Bond length increases down a group in the
periodic table and decreases across the period.

Bond energy shows the opposite trend.

Table 9.3 The Relation of Bond Order, Bond Length, and Bond Energy
 Figure 9.14 Bond length and covalent radius.

Internuclear distance Covalent Internuclear distance Covalent

(bond length) radius (bond length) radius

72 pm 114 pm

Internuclear distance Covalent Internuclear distance Covalent

(bond length) radius (bond length) radius

100 pm 133 pm

9-74
Sample Problem Comparing Bond Length and Bond Strength

PLAN: (a) S is singly bonded to three different halogen atoms, so the bond
order is the same. Bond length increases and bond strength
decreases as the atomic radius of the halogen increases.
(b) The same two atoms are bonded in each case, but the bond
orders differ. Bond strength increases and bond length decreases
as bond order increases.

SOLUTION:
Bond length: S–Br > S–Cl > S–F
(a) Atomic size increases going
down a group, so F < Cl < Br. Bond strength: S–F > S–Cl > S–Br

Bond length: C–O > C=O > CΞO

(b) By ranking the bond orders, we get
Bond strength: CΞO > C=O > C–O
USING Bond ENERGY for
ENERGY OF REACTIONS
 Bond Energies and Horxn
The heat released or absorbed during a chemical change is due
to differences between the bond energies of reactants and
products.
H°rxn = H°reactant bonds broken- H°product bonds formed
 Using bond energies to calculate H°rxn for
HF formation.

Bonds
formed

Bonds
broken
Using bond energies to calculate H°rxn for the
combustion of methane.
 Sample Problem Using Bond Energies to Calculate H°rxn

PROBLEM: Calculate H°rxn for the chlorination of methane to form

chloroform.
H H

H C H + 3 Cl Cl Cl C Cl + 3 H Cl

H Cl

bonds broken bonds formed

H° positive H° negative

PLAN: All the reactant bonds break, and all the product bonds form.
Count the bonds according to type and multiply by coefficient.
Find the bond energies and substitute the two sums, with correct
signs, into equation.
 Sample Problem SOLUTION:
For bonds broken:
4 x C-H = (4 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 1652 kJ
3 x Cl-Cl = (3 mol)(243 kJ/mol) = 729 kJ
H°bonds broken = 2381 kJ
For bonds formed:
3 x C-Cl = (3 mol)(-339 kJ/mol) = -1017 kJ
1 x C-H = (1 mol)(-413 kJ/mol) = -413 kJ
3 x H-Cl = (3 mol)(-427 kJ/mol) = -1281 kJ
H°bonds formed = -2711 kJ
H°reaction = H°bonds broken + (-H bonds formed)
= 2381 kJ + (-2711 kJ) = - 330 kJ

H°reaction= H°bonds broken - H bonds formed

H°reaction = [(4 x C-H)+(3 x Cl-Cl)] – [(3 x C-Cl)+(1 x C-H)+(3 x H-Cl)]
=[(4 mol)(413 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(243 kJ/mol)] – [(3 mol)(-339 kJ/mol) + (1 mol)(-413 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(-427
kJ/mol)]


H°rxn = 2381 kJ - 2711 kJ

= -330 kJ
Covalent Compounds
Covalent Structures:
Strong forces within molecules (COVALENT BONDS)
Weak forces between molecules (IMFs or Intermolecular)
forces).
 Intermolecular Forces
Difference between bonds (intramolecular forces)
and intermolecular forces (intermolecular forces)

The H and O atoms in

each water molecule are
held together by a
covalent bond.

Each water molecule is

attracted to another
water molecule because
of the IMF felt between
them.
9-85
 Covalent-Network Solids:
include C, Si, W: diamond, graphite, quartz
Strong forces within molecules (COVALENT BONDS)

Allotropes of carbon: diamond and graphite

carbon SiO2: quartz
atoms

154.5
pm

diamond graphite
Very hard and has high Covalent in the layers but layers
melting point. Does not held together by IMFS so tend
conduct nor dissolve in to be softer and have lower
water melting points.
 Weak forces between molecules(IMFs or Intermolecular forces).

Intermolecular FORCES for

COVALENT COMPOUND

9-87
 Types of Covalent IMF
• Three types:
– London Dispersion
– Dipole-Dipole
– Hydrogen Bonding
• In general, the strengths of each are:
London Dispersion < Dipole-Dipole < H Bonding
• Bonds between atoms are MUCH stronger than any
of these intermolecular forces!

9-88
 London Dispersion
• Arise from random shifts in electrons in substances.
• Temporary (instantaneous) dipoles cause temporary
partial charges.

• These temporary dipoles can induce other temporary dipoles in

molecules nearby.
• Partial charges attract molecules, until they disappear.
• All substances exhibit this type of intermolecular force (even ionic
compounds) because all substances have electrons!

9-89
 Intermolecular Forces: other temporary dipoles
Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles
induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

11.2
 Dipole-Dipole
• IMF exhibited in polar covalent compounds.
• Permanent dipole within structure.
– Electronegativity differences!
• Partial positive charges and partial negative charges attract in
different molecules and hold them together.
• Stronger partial charges = stronger dipole-dipole forces.

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

9-94
 Hydrogen Bonding
Some dipole-dipole forces are especially strong
and have a class of their own.
•Hydrogen bonding:
O, F, or N bonded to a H atom.
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between
the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an
electronegative O, N, or F atom.

9-96
Why is the hydrogen bond considered a
“special” dipole-dipole interaction?

Decreasing molar mass

Decreasing boiling point

11.2
 Ion-Dipole Interactions
• A fourth type of force, ion-dipole interactions are an
important force in solutions of ions.
• The strength of these forces are what make it possible for
ionic substances to dissolve in polar solvents.
• Considered stronger than dipole-dipole
Summarizing Intermolecular Forces
MP, BP, and VP, vapor
pressure, depend on how
hard it is to pull particles
apart
Weak IMF – easy to pull
particles apart
Strong IMF – more
difficult to pull apart
Solids at room temperature
have stronger IMF than
liquids, and liquids at room
temperature have stronger
IMF than gases.
The physical properties of molecular compounds, are not related to
the strength of their covalent bonds.
Most covalent compounds have low m.p. and b.p. because the strong covalent
bonding is typically isolated within molecules. The attractions between separate
molecules, IMFs, are what must be overcome to melt or boil these covalent
substances.
Covalent compounds are non-conductive except for acids because electrons are

bound in bonds and not free to move.

Molecular compounds are typically gases and liquids; and soft, non-lustrous solids.

Molecular compounds dissolve in water if POLAR.

The physical properties of network covalent solids, are related to the

strength of their covalent bonds. Compounds with C and C, Si , Si and O
 In these substances there are no individual molecules, the

covalent bonding extends in 3-D throughout the substance.

 Non-conductive , do not dissolve in water

 Very hard with high melting points. Ex: Quartz (SiO2) mp 1550°C; Diamond (C)
hardest known substance, mp 3550°C
 Metallic Bonding
The electron sea model of metallic bonding proposes that:
 All metal atoms in the sample contribute
their valence electrons to form a delocalized
electron “sea”. All the atoms in the sample
share the electrons.
 The metal “ions” (nuclei with core electrons)
lie in an orderly array within this mobile sea.
 The metal is held together by the attraction
between the metal “cations” and the “sea” of
valence electrons.
Metallic Bonding
 Properties of Metals
• Metals are generally solids with moderate to high melting points
(varying) and much higher boiling points.
– Melting points decrease down a group and increase across a period.
• Metals can be shaped without breaking.
– The electron sea allows the metal ions to slide past each other.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity in both the solid and
liquid states.
– The electron sea is mobile in both phases.
• Metals are good conductors of heat.

9-
 Melting points of the Group 1A(1) and Group 2A(2) metals.

9-
 Figure 9.29 Why metals dent and bend rather than crack.

9-
 What is an alloy?
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element.
Steel is a common example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed
with carbon and other elements. Adding other elements to a
metal changes its structure and so changes its properties.

The final alloy may have

very different properties
to the original metal.
By changing the amount
of each element in an
alloy, material scientists
can custom-make alloys
to fit a given job.

9-
 What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon,
nickel and chromium.
Steel is stronger than pure iron and can be used for
everything from sauce pans… …to suspension bridges!

9-
 Why is steel stronger
The atoms in pure iron are
than iron?
arranged in densely-packed
layers. These layers can slide
over each other. This makes
pure iron a very soft material.
The atoms of other elements
are different sizes. When other
elements are added to iron,
their atoms distort the regular
structure of the iron atoms.
It is more difficult for the layers
of iron atoms in steel to slide
over each other and so this
alloy is stronger than pure iron.
9-
 What types of alloys are there?
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy
of copper and tin, was commonly used by civilizations before iron
extraction methods were developed.
Other well-known alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc.
It does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It
is used in electronics to attach
components to circuit boards.
 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and
silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm
and resists corrosion.
9-
9-
 Alloys

9-
 Solubility and
Dissolving
Molecular compounds
&
Ionic Compounds can dissolve
 Solubility
“Like Dissolves Like”
• Polar Molecules dissolve in polar
solvents as they are attracted to
them
– like H2O, CHCl3, NH3 etc.

• Ions dissolve in polar solvents

• Non-polar Molecules dissolve in
non-polar solvents
– like hexane, CCl4
 Polarity and Solubility
• Nonpolar solvents
– Cannot dissolve ionic compounds
– The attraction among the ions is much stronger than the
attractions among the separated ions
– Can dissolve nonpolar substances
• Polar solvents (e.g. water)
– Can dissolve ionic compounds and polar covalent
compounds because the ions can be attracted to the
solvent and stay dissociated

Like dissolves like

Dissolving
ionic
compound

Dissolving covalent
compound
Dissolving : Ionic VS Covalent
Comparison of
Bond TYPES
 Relative Strength of Attractive
Forces
Type Attractive Force Strength of force

Ionic compound Electrostatic Strong:

(between + ion and – ion) attractions between High M.P. & B. P.
ions

Metals and Alloys Metallic bonding in Strong:

atoms High/Moderate M.P. & B.
P.

Covalent Network: Shared electrons Very Strong:

between atoms Very High M.P. & B. P.
bonds inside
molecules
Covalent : Intermolecular Weak:
Forces between Low M.P. & B. P.
Molecular compound molecules
Contrast Ionic and Molecular Compounds
• Ionic Compounds
– all solid at SATP
– aqueous solutions conduct electricity
– transfer of electrons when forming bonds
– metal-nonmetal
– crystal lattice compounds
• Molecular Compounds
– solid, liquid and gases at SATP
– solids can be brittle OR a few extremely hard
– aqueous solutions do not conduct electricity
– share electrons when forming bonds
– nonmetal-nonmetal
– true molecule
 Ionic Compounds Molecular
Compounds
Crystal Lattice Molecule
Types of Elements
Metal with non-metal Non-metal with non-
or polyatomic ions metal
Physical State @
room temperature
Solid Solid, liquid or gas
Melting Point
High Low
> 300 C <300 C
Solubility in water
Generally high Generally low:
depends on polarity
Electrical
conductivity of
Good conductor Poor to none
solution (dissolved)
Electronegativity
difference
> 1.7 0 - .4 nonpolar
Types of Solids
PRACTICE SKILLS
 What is the hybridization of each? sp3

sp2

sp3 Sp3d2

sp

Sp3d Sp3d2

Sp3d sp3
What is the polarity of each? P

NP

NP
NP

NP NP

P
NP
What is the hybridization of each?

sp3

sp2 sp3

sp2

sp3
sp 3

sp3
What is the polarity of each?

P NP

NP
NP

P
REVIEW OF
BONDING AND
FORCES
Types of Bonding in Crystalline Solids
NON-POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Examples: O2, CH4, CO2

Types of particles: 2 or more non-metals
IMF’s = Dispersion
Physical state – can be s, l, or g – depends on molecular
weight (MW)
Melting/Boiling Pts. – very low to low
Solubility in water – Not soluble
Conductivity – poor to non conducting.
POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Examples: H2S, HCl, H2O

Types of particles: usually 2 or more non-metals
IMF’s = Dipole-Dipole and maybe hydrogen bonds
Physical state – can be s, l, or g – depends on molecular
weight (MW)
Melting/Boiling Pts. – low to medium
Solubility in water – most are soluble
Conductivity – Do not conduct.
NETWORK COVALENT SOLIDS

Network solids –
solids in which all the atoms are covalently
bonded to each other
Network solids melt at very high temperatures, or not at
all (decomposes)
Diamond does not really melt, but vaporizes to a gas at
3500 oC and beyond
SiC, used in grinding, has a melting point of about
2700 oC
 NETWORK COVALENT

Examples: Carbon, Silicon, SiO2, C60

Types of particles: usually single atoms
IMF’s = covalent bonds
Physical state – solids
Melting/Boiling Pts. – very high
Solubility in water – Not soluble
Conductivity – poor to non conducting.
IONIC COMPOUNDS

Examples: NaCl, MgO

Types of particles: Metal and Non-metal
IMF’s = Ionic bonds
Physical state – crystalline solids, brittle
Melting/Boiling Pts. – very high
Solubility in water – most are soluble
Conductivity – conduct as liquids or when dissolved in
water.
 Ionic Forces
• Ionic compounds are held together by attractive ionic
forces between ions Electrostatic FORCES
• Although this is a BOND, we can also look at it as an
intermolecular force, as it is responsible for holding
ionic compounds together.
• Two factors affect strength of ionic forces:
– Size of charge on the ion.
– Ex: NaCl vs. MgCl2; MgCl2 has stronger forces because
Mg+2 has a larger positive charge than Na+.
– Size of the ion itself (radius).
– Ex: NaCl vs. KCl; NaCl has stronger forces because Na + is
smaller than K+.
• Stronger forces = higher boiling/melting point!
9-
METALLIC

Examples: Al, Cu, Fe

Types of particles: cations in sea of electrons
IMF’s = metallic bonds
Physical state – all solids except Hg
Melting/Boiling Pts. – variable – depends on charge
and size
Solubility in water – Not soluble
Conductivity – conduct as solids or liquids