GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
1

SENIOR
HIGH
SCHOOL
General Chemistry 1
SCIENCE
Subject Description TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING &
Composition, structure, and properties of MATHEMATICS
matter; quantitative principles, kinetics, and
SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
energetics of transformations of matter; and
fundamental concepts of organic chemistry Grade Level: 11
Semester: 1st/2nd
Hours/Semester: 80 Hrs.

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Contents
UNIT 1 SCIENCE
TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY ENGINEERING &
MATHEMATICS
UNIT 2
CHEMICAL CALCULATION & REACTION SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
STEM-ACADEMIC
UNIT 3
THE GASEOUS STATE OF MATTER
Grade Level: 11
UNIT 4 Semester: 1st/2nd
Hours/Semester: 80 Hrs.
ATOMIC AND MOLECULARSTRUCTURES

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 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO
CHEMISTRY
Lesson 1: Matter and Its Properties
Lesson 2: Measurements
Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Lesson 4: Mole Concept

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LESSON 1: MATTER AND ITS
PROPERTIES
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

1 2
• I will be able to describe the particulate
nature of the different forms of matter;
• I will be able to classify the properties of
matter;
• I will be able to differentiate pure 3 4

substance and mixtures; elements and

compounds; homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures;
5 6

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LESSON 1: MATTER AND ITS
PROPERTIES
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

• I will be able to recognize the formulas of

1 2
some common substances;
• I will be able to discuss methods to
separate the components of a mixtures;
and
• I will be able to recognize chemical 3 4

substances present in some consumer

products

5 6

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Activity 1: What is Matter?

MATTER

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Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Everything on earth has mass and takes
up space.

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 PARTICLES COMPOSING MATTER

These are particles that

These are the smallest unit These are groups of two or
have gained or lost one or
of matter that can’t be more atoms that are
more of their valence
broken down chemically. chemically bonded.
electrons.

ATOMS MOLECULES IONS

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 STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Activity 2: Table Completion

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CLOSELY VERY FAR
FAR APART
PACKED APART

RESTRICTED VERY FREE

FREE MOVEMENT
MOTION MOVEMENT

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PLASMA
THE 4TH STATE OF MATTER

• It is a hot ionized gas consisting of

approximately equal numbers of
positively charged ions and negatively
charged electrons.

• The characteristics of plasmas are

significantly different from those of
ordinary neutral gases so
that plasmas are considered a distinct
"fourth state of matter."
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BOSE-EISTEIN CONDENSATE
THE 5TH STATE OF MATTER

• It is a state of matter in which separate

atoms or subatomic particles, cooled to
near absolute zero.
• When they reach that temperature the
atoms are hardly moving relative to each
other; they have almost no free energy to
do so. At that point, the atoms begin to
clump together, and enter the same
energy states.

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 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

According to changed involved According to dependence on

during measurements of the amount of matter
property.

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL EXTENSIVE

INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
These can be measured These are the ability of a These can be
and observed without substance to react with It does not depend on affected by the size
changing the composition other substances such as the size or amount of and amount of
of the substance. air, water, and base. the sample. samples.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

INTENSIVE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXTENSIVE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Color Melting Point Density Mass

Volume
Solubility Conductivity Malleability
Length
Luster Viscosity Boiling Point

Temperature Odor

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 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES DESCRIPTION
1. Combustibility Whether the substance undergoes combustion or not
\
2. Stability Whether the substance can be easily decomposed or not

3. Reactivity Whether it reacts with acids, bases, and oxygen, gas or not

4. Relative Activity Whether the material is more active or less active than other members
of its chemical family

5. Ionization Whether it will break into charged particles when in solution with water
or not.

6. Toxicity Whether substance can damage an organism or not.

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Activity 3
Group the characteristics of the give substance according to their physical (extensive or
intensive) or chemical properties.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL

SUBSTANCES INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES

1. The water in the container has a

volume of 100 mL and a mass of
99.8 g. It is colorless, and
tasteless. It has a density of
0.998g/mL, boils at 100 degrees
Celsius, and freezes at 0 degree
Celsius. It does not burn. It causes
Iron to rust.

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Activity 3
Group the characteristics of the give substance according to their physical (extensive or
intensive) or chemical properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES

2. NaCl with a mass of 37.9 g is

colorless, odorless, and salty solid
crystals. It has melting point of 801
degree Celsius. When dissolved in 100
mL water, it conducts electricity. It reacts
with silver nitrate to form a white
precipitates. It also react with water to
form chlorine gas, hydrogen gas, and
sodium hydroxide.

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 MATTER

PURE
It is a matter that has a definite MIXTURES
These are composed of two or more
substances combined physically in various
composition and distinct properties
SUBSTANCE composition

It contains two or It is a solid, liquid, or

It is the simplest HOMOGENEOUS
gaseous mixture that has
HETEROGENOU
It is a mixture whose
more kinds of atom
ELEMEN
form of matter since COMPOU
chemically combined the same MIXTURE
proportions of its
composition
S MIXTUREvaries from
it composed of only one position to another
T
one kind of atom. ND
in definite proportion
by mass
components throughout any
given sample.
within the sample.

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Activity 4: Pure Substance or Mixture?

1. TABLE SUGAR 2. TABLE SALT

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

3. IODIZED SALT 4. DISTILLED WATER

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

4. SOFTDRINKS 5. OXYGEN GAS (TANK)

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 PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

6. BROWN SUGAR 7. HUMAN BREATH

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Activity 5: HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

1. RUBBING ALCOHOL 2. WATER &OIL

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 HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

3. SALT & PEPPER 4. CARBONATED SOFTDRINKS

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 HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS?

5. HUMAN BREATH

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 SEPERATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.

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 SEPERATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.

1. Filtration is a process of separating the components of a suspension

2. In Decantation the solid particles are allowed to settled first at the
bottom and later, the liquid which is called supernatant is poured into
another container leaving behind solid particle.
3. Evaporation is the process of converting liquid to gas, is useful in
sorting mixtures such as salt solution.
4. Distillation is a process of separating a homogeneous mixture
composed of two substances with different boiling points.

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 SEPERATING MIXTURES
Chemist separate mixtures by using different methods.

5. Magnetic Separation is the process of separating elemental metals

from other particles in a mixture.
6. Melting is a process that can be used in extricating mixture that
contain two substances with different melting points.
7. Sublimation is a process of changing solid to gas without passing
through the liquid state.
8. In Centrifugation, the mixture is poured into a special tube in the
centrifuge apparatus, and is allowed to spin using centrifugal force. The
spinning motion forces the sediments to settle at the bottom. The liquid
can be poured off from the solid particles.

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9. Chromatography is another method of separating complex mixtures. It has
various methods that can be used in separating mixture such as paper
chromatography, which makes used of an adsorbent (filter paper or chromatogram
paper), then separation depends upon the solubility of each component in the
solvent.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
CONSUMER PRODUCT
• It is any item often bought for consumption.
Convenience Product – those that appeal to a large segment
of the market or those that are routinely bought.

1. Household Cleaning
2. Personal Care Product

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• The most commonly used cleaning products are bleach,
soaps, and detergents. These products have different
compositions, specific uses, precautions for use, and costs.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• Bleach helps clean and whiten surfaces by generally lowering
the stability of the chemical bonds in stain molecules.
• It can convert dirt into particles that can be easily washed
away in conjunction with use of detergents.

• NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite) and H2O2 (Hydrogen

Peroxide) are most common bleaching agents that are strong
oxidizers; they can burn then skin and eyes especially if used
in concentrated form.

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIAL
• Soap and Detergent are mixture of surfactants, water
softeners, stain removers, enzymes and perfumes, among
others.

• Surfactants render soaps and detergents capable of lowering

the surface tension of water, which allows them to wet the
surface to be cleaned. They also loosen and disperse water-
insoluble solids making them washable with water.

• Soap and Detergents are generally not toxic and severely

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PURE SUBSTANCES & MIXTURES IN CONSUMER
PRODUCTS
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS
• Personal Care product constitute a diverse group of materials
that improve the overall appearance of a person. These
products are used to generally cleanse and beautify.

Examples of highly demanded personal care products are

makeup, lotions, and toothpastes.

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LESSON 2: MEASUREMENTS
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

• I will be able to describe the need 1 2

for measurement;
• I will be able to carry out simple
measurements of length, volume,
and mass; and
3 4

• I will be able to differentiate the

accuracy and the precision of a
measurement
5 6

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Keywords for the concepts to be learned;

a.Measurements
b.Unit of Measurements
c.Accuracy
d.Precision
e.Significant figures
f. Errors

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Measurements
• The study of matter requires a certain
degree of measurements, a process of
determining the extent of the dimensions,
quantity, or extent of something.

• Questions such as “How much….?” ,“How

long…?” and “How many…?” simple
cannot be answered without resorting to
measurement.

Q1. Can you cite some situations in daily life

where a measurement is important?
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Units of Measurements

• The most convenient system

of units is the International
System of Units (SI).

• This system is the modern

versions of metric system.

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Units of Measurements
The name of the fractional parts and the multiples of the base units are
constructed by adding prefixes. These prefixes, shown in table, indicate
the size of the unit relative to the base unit.

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Uncertainty in Measurements

• A measured quantity contains some digits that are exactly

known and one digit that is estimated. The estimated digit
produces uncertainty in measurements.

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Random Error and Systematic Error
• RANDOM ERROR (indeterminate error) is the uncertainty
that arises from a scale reading which results from the
uncontrolled variables in the measurement.
• It causes one measurement to differ slightly from the next. It
comes from unpredictable changes during an experiment.
Examples
a. When weighing yourself on a scale, you position yourself
slightly different each time.
b. Measuring your height is affected by minor posture changes.

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Random Error and Systematic Error

• SYSTEMATIC ERROR (determinate error) is the uncertainty

that may come from a flaw in the equipment used or design of
an experiment. These error are usually caused by measuring
instruments that are incorrect calibrated or are used
incorrect.
• Examples
a. A worn out instrument
b. An incorrectly calibrated or tared instrument
c. A person consistently take an incorrect measurements
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Precision and Accuracy

• Precision is the consistency of a result. If you measure a

quantity several times and the values agrees closely with one
another, then your measurement is precise.; however, if the
values varied widely, then it is imprecise.

• Accuracy is determined when a certain quantitative value is

relatively close to the “true value”

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Activity 6
• Each dot is the result of a measurement whose value is indicated in
the horizontal (or x-) axis. The plot presents the results of six
measurements of the weight of a pebble whose true weight is 8.0 g.
• Determine whether each measurement is accurate or inaccurate, and
precise or imprecise.

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Activity 7

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Scientific Notation

• It is a simple way to write or keep track of very large or very

small numbers without having to deal with a lot of zeros.
• It provides a convenient way of recording results and doing
calculations.

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Jens Martensson 48
Activity 8

1. 0.012345698632
2. 1 230 945
3. 87 576 788 432 234 543
4. 0.O6OO789653
5. 11 987

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Significant Figures
• Significant figures are the digits in any measurement that
are known certainty with an additional one digit which is
uncertain.
RULES MEASURED NUMBERS NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
247 3

2. Zeroes between nonzero digits

are significant. 20303 5

3. Zeroes to the left of the first

nonzero digits are NOT significant 0.0200 3

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Significant Figures
RULES MEASURED NUMBERS NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT

4. If the number is less than 1, then

only the zeros at the end of the 0.003560 4
number and the zero between
nonzero digits are significant.

5. If the number is greater than 1,

then all the zeros written to the right
of the decimal point are significant. 35600.00 7

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Activity 9
Give the number of significant figures for each of the following measurements.

1. 2 365 mm
2. 309 cm
3. 5.030 g/mL
4. 0.0670 g
5. 3.60 x 10-4

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Activity 10
Give the number of significant figures for each of the following measurements.

1. 0.476 kg
2. 89.7808 ft
3. 0.430 mg
4. 60.0 min
5. 1 x 107

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Rules for Significant Figures in Fundamental Operations

• In addition and subtraction, the answer must have the same

number of decimal places as the measured number with the
least number of decimal places.

• In multiplication and division, the answer must have the

same number of significant figures as the measured number
with the lowest number of significant figures.

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Activity 11
Perform the following operations and write the answers in the proper
number of significant figures.

1. 4.87 m + 36.578 m + 4.34 m

2. 8.9 mL ÷ 45 mL
3. 68.980 cm – 67.16 cm
4. 45.00 ft. x 3.00 ft.
5.14.4 g + 6.0 g
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Rules in Rounding Off

• Oftentimes, the answers to

computations contain too many
insignificant digits. Hence it
becomes necessary to round off
numbers to attain the insignificant
figures. Rounding off, therefore, is
the process of removing,
insignificant digits from calculated
number.

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Rules in Rounding Off
• The following rules should be applied to round off values to
the correct number of digits.
1. For a series of calculations, carry extra digits through to the
final result, then round off.
2. If the first digit to be deleted is….
a. 5 or greater, the last retained figure is increased by one
b. 4 or less, the last retained figure is retained.

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Conversion of Units (Dimensional Analysis)
• Dimensional Analysis is a process in which a conversion
factor written in a form of ratio is used to change units given in
the data to the units desired.

• The following are steps to be followed in doing dimensional

analysis.
a. Write the unknown quantity that is sought, including the
units.
b. Write all known conversion factors needed
c. Begin with what is known and then multiply it by the
identified conversion factor, cancelling similar units to get the
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 METRIC AND ENGLISH CONVERSIONS
QUANTITY METRIC ENGLISH CONVERSION
g, Kg lb, oz 1lb = 454 g
MASS 1kg = 2.2 lb
1 oz = 28.35g
cm, m, km in, ft, mi, Å 1 in = 2.54cm
LENGTH 1 m = 39.37 in
1 ft = 12 in
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.62137 mi
1 Å = 10-10 m
mL, L qt, pints, cups, 1 qt =946 mL
VOLUM tsp, tbsp, fl oz,
1 L = 1.057 qt
1 L = 2.12 pints
gal 1 L = 4.23 cups
E 1 tsp = 4.93 mL
1tbsp = 14.79 mL
1 fl oz = 29.06 mL
1 gal = 3.79 L Jens Martensson 59
Activity 12
Sample Problems!

1.The lemon juice drink contains 500.0 mg of vitamin C.

Express the vitamin C content in grams.

2. A fitness drink measures 0.300 L. Express the volume

in L

3. Calculate the number of centimeters in 53.5 inches.

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Density Measurement
• Density measurement is one of the common measurements
done in the laboratory. It involves getting Mass, Volume and
Temperature of an Object.
A. Mass is the quantity of matter in the object. It is determined
by weighing the object, using balance. The SI basic unit of
mass is the Kilogram, but the gram is more convenient to
use.

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Density Measurement
B. Volume is the amount of space occupied by a substance. In
liquids, the volume can be determined using a graduated
cylinder, while solids, the volume can be determined by two
methods.

1. For regularly shaped-solids, the volume formula for the

particular shaped is used.
Some formula that may be used are the following:
Rectangular solid = L x W x H Cylindrical Solid = πr2h
Cubic solid = S x S x S Spherical solid = 4/3 πr3
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Density Measurement
2. For irregularly-shaped solids, the water displacement method
is used.

C. Temperature tells how hot or cold an object is. It is

commonly marked either by oC (Celsius) or o F (Fahrenheit);
although the SI basic unit for temperature is the K (Kelvin).
To convert oC or oF to K, the following are used.
• K = oC + 273.15
• K = (oF + 459.67) x 5/9

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Density Measurement
DENSITY is the ratio of the mass of an object to the volume it
occupies.

𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺
DENSITY =
𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬
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Activity 13
Sample Problems

1.A sample amount of sugar has a mass of 250.0 g and a

volume of 157.3 cm3. What is its density in grams per cubic
centimeter?

2. Gold metal has a density of 19.3 g/cm3. What is the volume

in cubic centimeter of a 500.0 g bar of gold metal?

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Activity 14
Sample Problem

1. The volume and the mass of two objects (A & B) have been
obtained in order to determine their densities, respectively.
Identify which object is denser.
OBJECT METHOD USED FOR DETERMINING THE VOLUME MASS
A By measuring its dimension 90.0 g
L = 2.0 cm, W = 2.5 cm H = 15 cm
B By water displacement method: 65.0 g
Final Volume (Water + object) = 100 mL
Initial Volume (Water) = 80.0 mL

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Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules and Ions
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY!

• I will be able to describe and discuss the

basic laws of chemical change;
• I will be able to discuss how Dalton’s Atomic
Theory could explain the basic laws of
chemical changes;
• I will be able to give the information
provided by the atomic number and mass
number of an atom and its isotopes

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Lesson 3: Atoms, Molecules and Ions
OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY!

• I will be able to differentiate atoms,

molecules, and ions;
• I will be able to write the chemical formula of
some molecules;
• I will be able to differentiate a molecular
formula and an empirical formula; and
• I will be able to give the name of a
compound, given its chemical formula.

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Keywords

a. Law of Conservation of Matter h. Law of Definite

Proportion
b. Law of Multiple Proportion i. Dalton’s Atomic
Theory
c. Atomic number j. Mass number
d. Isotope k. Atom
e. Molecule l. Ion
f. Chemical formula m. Molecular formula
g. Empirical formula

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LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

• These laws were inferred from several

experiments conducted during the 18th century
using a balance for the measurements:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
2. Law of Definite Proportion
3. Law of Multiple Proportion

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• ANTOINE LAVOISIER, a brilliant

French chemist, formulated this law
by describing one of his experiments
involving mercuric oxide.

• He placed a small amount of

mercuric oxide, a red solid, inside a
retort and sealed the vessel tightly.

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• He weighed the system, and then subjected it to

high temperature.

• During the heating, the red solid turned into a

silvery liquid. This observation indicated that a
chemical reaction took place.

• After which, the setup was cooled and then

weighed. The weight of the system was found to
be the same as before heating.

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A. Law of Conservation of Mass

• In a chemical reaction, no change in mass takes

place. The total mass of the products is equal to
the total mass of the reactant.

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B. Law of Definite Proportion

• A compound always contains the same constituent elements

in a fixed or definite proportion by mass.

• If water samples coming from different sources are analyzed,

all the samples will contain the same ratio by mass of
hydrogen to oxygen.

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Sample Problems

• A pure sample of Sodium Flouride (NaF) contains 35g of

Sodium. How many grams of Flourine are present in this
sample?

• If there are 42g of H in a sample of pure Methane (CH4), How

many grams of Carbon are present?

• If there are 19g of oxygen in a sample of Aluminum Oxide

(Al2O3), How many grams of Aluminum are present?
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C. Law of Multiple Proportions

• If two elements can combine to form more than one

compound, the masses of one element that will combine with
a fixed mass of the other element are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• In 1808, John Dalton published his

book A New System of Chemical
Philosophy, where he proposed an
atomic theory of matter that can
explain chemical observations as
predicted by the three fundamental
laws.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

1. Matter is made up of extremely small

indivisible particles called atoms.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

2. Atoms of the same element are

identical, and are different from those of
other elements.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

3. Compounds are composed of atoms

of more than one element, combined in
definite ratios with whole number
values.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory comprised the following postulates:

4. During a chemical reaction, atoms

combine, separate, or rearrange. No
atoms are created and no atoms
disappear.

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• During the time of Dalton, the atom
was believed to be the smallest
particle comprising substances.
However, before the end of the 19th
century, experiments provided proof of
the existence of smaller particles
within the atom.

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Activity 15
• Recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic particles) and differentiate the
particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by filling up the following table:

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Activity 15
• Recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic particles) and differentiate the
particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by filling up the following table:

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• An atom of an element may be represented in a certain

configuration that includes its atomic number (Z) and Mass
number (A), written as the left superscript and left subscript,
respectively of the element symbol.
mass number (A)
4
He Symbol of Element

atomic number (Z)

2
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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• The atomic number of an element represents the number of

protons in its nucleus. Because an atom as a whole is
electrically neutral, the atomic number also specifies the
number of electron present.

ATOMIC NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS = NUMBER OF

ELECTRONS

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

• The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of

protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Thus, the mass number
gives the number of subatomic particles present in the
nucleus.

MASS NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS + NUMBER OF

NEUTRONS

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Activity 16
COMPLETE THE TABLE BELOW

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Isotopes are toms of an element having the same atomic
number but different mass number.
The existence of isotopes was shown by mass spectroscopy
experiments, wherein elements were found to be composed of
several types of atoms, each with different masses.

a. The atomic number identifies an element. The atoms of

isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and
electrons.
b. The atoms of isotopes of an element differ in the number of
neutrons.

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Atoms, Molecules and Ions

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Atoms, Ions and Molecules

• Of all the elements, only six exist as single atoms, namely

Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. Most
matters are composed of ions formed from atoms.

• A molecule is a combination of at least two atoms in a definite

proportion, bound together by covalent bonds.

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Ions

• When a neutral atom gain or loses one or more electrons, it

becomes an electrically charged particles called ion.

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Ions

• Metals tend to lose electrons and become positively charged

cations. Nonmetals, on the other hand, gain electrons and
become negatively charged anions. The number of electron
lost or gained is the charged number.

• Ions can be made up of only one atom (monoatomic) or more

than one type of atom (polyatomic).

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Naming Monoatomic Ions

Monoatomic ions are named based on the element.

a. For cations, the name of the element is unchanged.

• If an element can form two ions of different charges, the

name, which is usually derived from its Latin name, is
modified by the suffix –ic for the ion with the higher charge,
and –ous for that with the lower charge.

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Jens Martensson 97
Naming Monoatomic Ions
b. The monoatomic anions are named by attaching the suffix –
ide to the first few letters (root) of nonmetal name,

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Activity 17.1
Name the following cations below.

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Activity 17.2
Name the following anions below.

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• Several anions are polyatomic and are named based
on the atomic constituents and the suffix – ide.

• The most common examples are:

a. OH- – hydroxide ion
b. CN- – cyanide ion

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• A number of polyatomic anions containing oxygen
atoms are named based on the root word of the central
(or non-oxygen) atom and the suffix –ate for the one
with more oxygen atoms and –ite for the one with less
oxygen atom.

• Some anions have common names ending with the

suffix –ate.
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Chemical Formula

• The composition of a molecule or an ion can be represented

by a chemical formula. The formula consists of the symbols of
the atoms making up the molecule. If there is more than one
atom present, a numerical subscript is used.

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Chemical Formula

• There are two types of chemical formula - the molecular

formula and empirical formula.

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Chemical Formula

• Molecular Formula indicates the actual number of each

element in a compound.

• Emperical Formula is the simplest chemical formula. It only

shows relative ratio between the number of atoms of the
different elements present in the compound.

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Activity 18
Write the empirical formula of the following molecules.

1. C2H4O2
2. C8H12N4
3. C8H10
4. P4O10
5. PH3

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Naming Compounds
A. IONIC COMPOUNDS (cation and anion)
1. For Binary Compounds, metal cations take their
names from the elements, while the anion take the
first part of the name of element , and add the suffix
–ide end.
CATION ANION COMPOUND NAME OF
COMPOUND
Na+ O-2 Na2O Sodium oxide
Mg+2 N-3 Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride
Al+3 O-2 Al203 Aluminum Oxide

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Naming Compounds

2. For Ternary Compounds, the cation goes first in its

name before the polyatomic ion which usually ends with
–ite or -ate
CATION ANION COMPOUND NAME OF
COMPOUND
Na+ NO3-1 NaNO3 Sodium Nitrate
Na+ NO2-1 NaNO2 Sodium Nitrite

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Naming Compounds
3. For compounds containing a metallic ion of variable
charge, either the classical method or the stock method
of naming may be used.
• In the classical method, the name of metallic ions ends
in –ous (for lower charge) and –ic (for higher
charge)

• In the stock method, the metal is named first followed

by the value of the charge written in roman numeral
(enclosed in parenthesis)
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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)

• For one pair of elements that form several different

compounds, Greek prefixes are used to determine the number
of each element in the compound. For the first element, the
prefixes “mono” is omitted.

Examples
CO – carbon monoxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide
N2O4 – dinitrogen tetraoxide
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Jens Martensson 112
Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)

• For binary compounds, place the name of the first element;

then follow it with the second element. The second element is
named by adding –ide to the root of the element name.

Examples:
a. HCl – hydrogen chloride
b. HBr – hydrogen bromide

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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)

• For binary compounds considered as acids, use the prefix

hydro- followed it with second element. The second element
is named by adding –ide to the root of the element name.

• Examples
a. HCl – hydrogenchloric acid
b. HBr – hydrobromic acid

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Naming Compounds
B. MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS (TWO NONMETALS)

• Oxy-acids, those that contain hydrogen, oxygen and another

element, is named in two ways –

a. For anions ending with –ate, change –ate to –ic; then, follow
it with the word acid.

b. For anions ending with –ite, change –ite to –ous; then follow
it with the word acid.

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Lesson 4: Mole Concept
OOTD: OBJECTIVES OF THE DAY

• At the end of this lesson, the students must be able to

• explain the meaning of average atomic mass
• define a mole;
• illustrate Avogadro’s number with examples;
• determine the molar mass of elements and
compounds;
• calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an
element or compound, or vice versa; and
• calculate the mass of a given number of particles of
an element or compound, or vice versa.

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PERFORMANCE TASK
THIRD QUARTER – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

• History of the Atomic Structure

1. J.J Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
2. John Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
3. E. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
4. Niels Bohr’s Planetary Model
5. Schrodinger & Heisenberg Quantum Mechanical Model

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• Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store.
But she meets customers asking for 150
peanuts, another for 750 peanuts, and
another for 2,000 peanuts.

• Obviously, it will take Ms. Lilia a very

long time to count the peanuts. What
would be another way to count them?

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Jens Martensson 119
Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
Question: Is it possible to use the same procedure to count atoms. Why
•orWhether
why not?it is peanuts or mongo beans or candies or atoms, the
procedure should be the same.

• The problem, however, is atoms are very, very small and it is not
possible to see them and count them individually to get the average
mass.
• We need to look for another way to get the average mass of the atom.
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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
• Experiments have shown that atoms have different masses
relative to one another.
• For example, a Mg atom is experimentally reported to be
twice as heavy as a carbon atom; a silicon atom is twice the
mass of a nitrogen atom.

• It is possible to make a relative scale if one atom is chosen

as the reference or standard atom against which the masses
of the other atoms are measured.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit

• By international agreement, the

reference atom chosen is the C-12
isotope which contains six protons
and six neutrons.
• By definition, one atom of C-12 has a
mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(amu).
• One amu, therefore, is one-twelfth
(1/12) the mass of a C-12 atom.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
• Example
• The atomic mass of Cu-63 is 62.93 amu. This means that
relative to C-12, one atom of Cu-63 is 62.93/12 or 5.244 times
the mass of a C-12 atom.

Try This!
• One atom of Se-77 is 6.410 times as heavy as an atom of C-
12. What is the atomic mass of Se-77?

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Average Atomic Mass
• The atomic mass of the atoms of an element is the average atomic
masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of this element.
For example
• The average atomic mass of Oxygen is 15.999, not 16.00

• The 15.999 is calculated by considering the naturally-occurring isotopes of Oxygen, namely

Oxygen-16, Oxygeny-17 and Oxygen-18

• The periodic table provides the average atomic mass which takes into
account the different isotopes of an element and their relative
abundances.
NOTE: It is not a simple average that is taken but a weighted average
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Average Atomic Mass
• Average atomic masses are obtained by multiplying the mass of an
isotopes by its fractional abundance, as shown as follows.
ELEMENT MASS NUMBER ISOTOPIC MASS % ABUNDANCE AVERAGE
ATOMIC MASS
16 15.9949 u 99.76%
Oxygen 17 16.9991 u 0.04% 15.999 u

18 17.9992 u 0.20%

• Isotopes of elements occur in different abundances. Some are more

abundant than others.
1. Chlorine has two isotopes. The natural abundance of Cl-35 is 75%
while that of Cl-37 is 25%. This means that if you have 100 atoms of
chlorine, 75 of them will be Cl-35 and 25 of them will be Cl-37.

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2. Magnesium, on the other hand, has three isotopes with varying
abundances: Mg-24,Mg-25, and Mg-26, 11.01 have 78.99%, 10.00%,
and 11.01% abundance, respectively.
3. For carbon, the natural abundance of C-12 is 98.90% while that of C-
13 is 1.10%. The atomic mass of C-13 has been determined to be
13.00335 amu while that of C-12 is exactly 12 amu.

• Relative Atomic Mass is the ratio of the average atomic mass of an

atom to one atomic mass unit (amu) Hence, its value is similar with
average atomic mass, except that it has no unit.

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Activity 19

1. Copper has two stable isotopes with the following masses and %
abundances: Cu-63 (62.93 amu, 69.09% abundance) and Cu-65
(64.9278 amu, 30.91% abundance). Calculate the average atomic
mass of copper.

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The Avogadro’s Number

• In the SI system, the mole (mole) is defined as the

amount of substance containing the same number
of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of
carbon-12 isotope.

• One mole of a substance is equivalent to the

Avogdro’s number of particles 6.02 x 1023

• This number is so-named in honor of the Italian

scientist, Amadeo Avogadro

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The Avogadro’s Number
• Thus, based from the definition. It can be said that
a. One mole of an element is numerically equal to its
atomic mass unit.

b. One mole of an element contains 6.02 x 1023

atoms

c. One mole of molecular compound contains 6.02 x

1023 molecules

d. One mole of ionic compound contains 6.02 x 1023

cations and 6.02 x 1023 anions

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Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound (molecular or ionic) is the

mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is numerically
equal to the sum of the masses of the elements (in amu) that
make up the compound.

• The molar mass is obtained by multiplying the number of

atoms by the atomic mass of each element, and getting the
sum. The unit for molar mass is g/mol.

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Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound (molecular or ionic) is the

mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is numerically
equal to the sum of the masses of the elements (in amu) that
make up the compound.

• The molar mass is obtained by multiplying the number of

atoms by the atomic mass of each element, and getting the
sum. The unit for molar mass is g/mol.

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Activity 20

• Calculate the molar mass of the following compounds

1. C3H5N3O9

2. (NH2)2 CO

3. Hg(OCN)2

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Formula Mass and Molecular Mass
• Formula Mass is used for compounds that exists as ions, such as
NaCl. It is expressed in amu or u, and is numerically equal to the molar
mass expressed in grams per mole of a substance.
IONIC COMPOUND COMMON NAME MOLAR MASS FORMULA MASS
NaCl Table Salt 58g/mol 58 amu
CaO Quicklime 56g/mole 56 amu

• Molecular Mass is used for compounds that exist as molecules, such

as water (H2O) It is numerically equal to the molar mass and has a unit
amu.
MOLECULE COMMON NAME MOLAR MASS MOLECULAR MASS
CO2 Dry Ice 44g/mol 44 amu
C12 H22 O11 Dextrose 342g/mole 342 amu

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Calculation Involving Formulas

• The Avogadro’s number and molar mass are important to enable

conversions between mass and moles of atoms or molecules, ion and
vice versa. The following are the conversion factors that can be used in
calculations involving formulas.

• Where X represents the symbol of atoms, ions, or the formula of the

compound.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
and
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 6.23 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 (𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

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Sample Problems
A. Conversion between atoms, molecules, or ions and mass

1.Zinc is an essential mineral that is naturally occurring found in

foods and is also available as dietary supplement. How many
atoms are in 16.5 g of Zinc?

2. Ammonia (NH3) is used for fertilizers and many other things.

How many molecules of ammonia are present in 0.334 g of
ammonia?

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Sample Problems
B. Conversion between mass and moles

1. Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) is a main component of

explosive mixtures used in mining, quarrying, and civil
construction. If an explosive contains 345.0 g of ammonium
nitrate, how many mole of ammonium nitrate are present in
the explosive?

2. Copper is used for the absorption and used of iron in the

formation of haemoglobin. How many grams of Cu are
present in 3.87 mol copper?

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