Reviewer in Chemistry

Particulate Nature of Matter

Ancient Greek philosophers were the first to speculate the nature of matter by providing different
assumptions on what it is made of. The idea of Democritus paved the way in establishing that matter is
made up of particles instead of a primal material.
There are four main ideas in the particulate nature of matter:
 Matter is composed of discrete particles.
 There is an empty space between particles of matter.
 The particles of matter are in constant motion.
 There are forces that act between the particles.
The arrangement of particles, its motion, and intermolecular forces dictate the kind of state in which
matter exists.
Solids have particles that are compact and arranged in an orderly manner. The particles are held
tightly by strong attractive forces which limit its movement to vibratory motion in fixed
positions.
Liquids have particles that are close together but are not arranged in an orderly manner. The
particles are held by moderately strong attractive forces which allow them to slide past one
another.
Gases have particles that are far apart and are moving swiftly and in random directions. Since
particles are far apart from one another, there is very minimal force that exists between them.

Properties of Matter
The characteristics of matter that are present in all kinds of matter are known as general properties of
matter.

Qualities that are readily observable or measurable without changing the matter’s composition are
known as physical properties. Physical properties of matter may be further classified as intensive or
extensive. This classification is based on whether a physical property depends on the amount of matter.
○ Intensive properties are physical properties that do not depend on the amount of matter.
○ Extensive properties are physical properties that depend on the amount of matter.

The characteristics that can only be seen when the chemical identity of a material is altered are known
as chemical properties.
 Properties of Matter

Physical Chemical
Properties Properties

Flammability

Extensive Intensive
Biodegradability

Mass
Combustibility
Density Solubility Metallic
Volume Property
Reactivity

Melting Conductivity
point
Malleability

Ductility

Understanding how chemical molecules form and react to produce complex structures is necessary to be
able to harness the benefits of chemistry and utilize them to create useful chemical products.
Chemical products are materials that contain chemical substances that are manufactured and processed
for specific purposes such as medication, food preparation, cleaning and maintenance, fuel resources,
and construction.
It is important to consider the components of the chemical products you are using to determine whether
it is safe and effective to use as well as cost-efficient.

Separation of Mixtures
Homogeneous solid-liquid mixtures may be separated by evaporation or by recrystallization.
Evaporation is the phase transition from liquid to vapor. It is done by heating the solution to dry
up the solvent and crystallized the substance of interest.
Recrystallization is a separation technique based on the difference in solubilities of substances in
an appropriate solvent at an elevated temperature.
Homogeneous liquid-liquid mixtures may be separated by distillation or by chromatography.
Distillation is a separation technique based on the difference of boiling points between two liquid
components.
 Chromatography is a separation technique that relies on the differential partition of the
components between the two important phases in chromatography: the mobile phase and the
stationary phase.
Different methods can be used to separate heterogeneous solid-solid mixtures. Components of some
mixtures of this type can be separated by manual picking, sieving or by using a magnet.
Different methods can be used to separate heterogeneous solid-liquid mixtures such as filtration,
sedimentation, decantation, and centrifugation.
 Filtration is a process of separating solids from liquids by allowing the mixture to pass through a
filtering material.
 Sedimentation is the process in which suspended solids will eventually separate from liquids by
gravity.
 Decantation is the removal of the liquid component from the solid sediment by pouring the liquid
out of the container gently to avoid the solid particles to suspend again.
 Centrifugation is a process in which the suspension is rotated at very high speeds, allowing the
components to separate into layers based on their densities or particle size.

Atomic Theory
The ancient concept of an atom began with the atom concept of Democritus.
The four elements of matter are fire, air, water, and earth.
Modern chemistry began with Dalton’s atomic theory, which states that
 all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms;
 all atoms of the same element are identical;
 compounds contain atoms of different elements combined in whole-number ratios, and
 atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

The Subatomic Particles and the Structure of the Atom

The three subatomic particles of an atom are electron, proton, and neutron.
The electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson through his cathode-ray tube experiment. The charge and
mass of an electron were calculated by Robert Milikan through his oil-drop experiment.
The nucleus and proton were discovered by Ernest Rutherford and his associates through the gold foil
experiment.
The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick through his alpha particle and beryllium experiment.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Each element in the periodic table has a name and a distinctive chemical symbol.
The atomic number (Z), also referred to in most references as the proton number (p), represents the total
number of protons present in an element.
The mass number (A), also referred in most references as atomic mass, is defined as the sum of the
number of protons (p) and the number of neutrons (n) in an atom.
When electrons are removed or captured in an atom, a neutral atom becomes charged and is transformed
into an ion. Cations are positively charged, while anions are negatively charged.
The charge number (q) is determined as the difference between the number of protons and the number of
electrons.
Example:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons but different
numbers of neutrons.
Most isotopes are naturally occurring. Artificial isotopes, also known as radioisotopes, are radioactive
and highly unstable.
Isotopes have similar chemical properties but slightly different physical properties.
Isotones are elements that have the same number of neutrons. Isobars are elements that have the same
mass number but different atomic numbers.

Differentiating Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atoms tend to combine with one another to form more complex structural units called molecules.
Ions are charged species formed from the gain and/or loss of an electron/s of a neutral atom.
Cations are positively charged ions, and anions are negatively charged ions.
When ions are formed, only the number of electrons is changed, the number of protons still remains the
same for any atom.

Ways of Representing Molecules

A chemical formula is a way to represent molecules to convey information about its composition or
structure.
A molecular formula is the most common chemical formula wherein symbols of each element are
written down with a subscript indicating how many atoms are in the compound.
An empirical formula is a chemical formula showing only the simplest whole-number ratio of each
element in a compound.
Organic compounds are compounds containing carbon bonds. Compounds that lack these bonds
are called inorganic compounds. Molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen are part of a
family of organic compounds called hydrocarbons.
Structural formulas are detailed chemical formulas that show the structure of a compound.
 A complete structural formula is a structural formula wherein all bonds and atoms are shown.

 A condensed structural formula is a structural formula indicating the number of attached

hydrogens to each carbon

 A skeletal or line-angle formula is a representation of a structural formula wherein the hydrogen

and carbon atoms are implied from the shape of the structure.

A molecular model is a 3D model showing how atoms are connected in a molecule.

 A ball-and-stick model is a molecular model where different colored spheres represent atoms,
and sticks represent bonds.
  A space-filling model is a model wherein bond lengths are shortened for better estimation of its
length relative to the size of the atoms.

Writing and Naming Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are compounds that are made of cations and anions assembled together in a crystal
lattice. Ionic bonds hold the ions together in an ionic compound. They are formed when one or more
electrons are transferred from the cation to the anion.
In writing the chemical formula of ionic compounds, the net charge of the cation should be equal to the
net charge of the anion because ionic compounds are neutral entities.
The criss-cross method is one technique to easily determine the chemical formula of an ionic compound.
Ionic compounds are named by writing down the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the
anion.
Some monatomic cations can have multiple charge states. In naming these cations, either the traditional
system or the Stock system may be used to distinguish the charge states from each other.
Oxoanions are polyatomic ions that contain a nonmetal element and oxygen. These are named by
appending the appropriate prefixes or suffixes to the element’s stem name.
Acids are compounds that produce H+ ions when dissolved in water. Some hydrogen-containing salts are
considered acidic.

Common Cations and Anions and Their Charge States

Prior to learning the steps in writing formulas of ionic compounds, it is helpful to know how to predict
the charge of an element. There are several rules in predicting the charge states of elements. For
representative elements, they typically follow the periodic group that the
element belongs to:
● group 1A elements: +1 charge
● group 2A elements: +2 charge
● group 3A elements: +3 charge
● group 4A elements: C, Si, and Ge rarely form cations, while Sn and Pb can form multiple ions
● group 5A elements: -3 charge
● group 6A elements: -2 charge
● group 7A elements: -1 charge

On the other hand, transition elements are capable of forming multiple charge states because they can
lose varying numbers of electrons in their valence orbitals. Some common transition elements and their
charge states are shown below:

Formulas of Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

In writing the chemical formulas of ionic compounds with polyatomic ions, additional consideration is
required. Polyatomic ions are charged chemical species composed of two or more atoms that are
covalently bonded to each other. For example, nitrate (NO3- ) is a polyatomic anion.
When Ca2+ and NO3- combine together, the criss-cross method tells us that the resulting ionic compound
is written as Ca(NO3)2. We can immediately see that the chemical formula looks strange as it may
ambiguously imply that there are 32 oxygen atoms in the ionic compound. To resolve this, we place the
NO3- ion in parentheses before putting in the subscript. That is, the resulting ionic compound is written
as Ca(NO3)2.
If the subscript of the polyatomic ion is 1, then there is no need to write 1 nor to put in parentheses. For
example, Na+ and SO42- combine to form Na2SO4. The SO42- ion is not in parentheses because its
subscript is 1 using the criss-cross method.

Formulas of Acids and Their Salts

There are many theories to define an acid but the simplest one states that an acid is a molecule or ion
that produces hydrogen ions (also written as H+) when dissolved in water.
For instance, hydrogen chloride (also written as HCl) is a gaseous molecule that dissociates into H+ and
Cl- in the presence of water. Hence, HCl is considered an acid.
To write the chemical formula of acids, the correct number of hydrogen ions is supplied in order to
neutralize the anion. So essentially, the criss-cross method is still applicable. In the case of HCl for
example, one H+ ion is required to neutralize the -1 charge of one Cl- ion. For this reason, its chemical
formula is written as HCl. In a similar way, two H+ ions are required to neutralize the -2 charge of the
CO32- ion. Thus, its chemical formula is written as H2CO3.

Hydrogen-containing salts are also considered as acids. For example, NaHCO3 is a salt composed of the
Na+ ion and the HCO3- ion. The HCO3- ion is considered acidic because it can still further dissociate into
the H+ ion and the CO32- ion.
To write the chemical formula of hydrogen-containing salts, the criss-cross method is again applied. The
necessary number of cations is supplied to counter the negative charge of the anion.

Writing and Naming Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds are compounds that are made of nonmetals chemically bonded to each
other.
Covalent bonds hold the atoms together in a covalent compound. They are formed when one or
more electrons are shared between two nonmetals.
The octet rule is a general rule of thumb that describes the tendency of atoms to have a complete
set of eight electrons in their valence shell.
 In writing the chemical formula of covalent compounds given their names, the Greek prefix
preceding an element’s name must be considered. The numerical equivalent of the prefix must be
supplied as the element’s subscript in the chemical formula.
In naming covalent compounds given their chemical formulas, the correct Greek prefix must
again be appended to the elements’ name. The suffix -ide is also appended to the second element
that is named.
The first element to be named in a covalent compound is the element to the leftmost part of the
periodic table. If both elements in the compound are in one group, the element at the lower part
of the periodic table is named first.

In naming covalent compounds, it is again important to remember the Greek prefixes listed in Table
5.4.1. For binary covalent compounds, the element that is found farthest to the left of the periodic table
is typically named first. If they are both in the same group, the one who is at the lower portion of the
periodic table is named first. The number of atoms of the element is indicated by the Greek prefix. If the
first element has only one atom, then the prefix mono- is not written. The second element is then named
by attaching the correct Greek prefix to its stem name and then appending the suffix -ide.
For example, the covalent compound CO is named carbon monoxide. Carbon, the first element in this
compound, has only one atom. Since it is the first element, it is not necessary to append the prefix mono-
to its name. Meanwhile, the second element, oxygen, also has only one atom. Thus, it should be
appended with the prefix mono- and the suffix -ide. Combining both of these, we obtain the name
carbon monoxide.
Note that the monooxide term in carbon monoxide is shortened to monoxide. The letter “o” at the end of
the prefix mono- is omitted if the next letter is an o. In a similar way, the letter “a'' at the end of a prefix
is omitted if the next letter is an o. Thus, P2O5 is diphosphorus pentoxide and not disphosphorus
pentaoxide.