Mariano Marcos State University

College of Health Sciences

Pharmacy Department
City of Batac 2906 Ilocos Norte

PCHM 121: Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry with Qualitative Analysis

1st Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

Chapter Title
Fundamentals of Chemistry
Introduction

Chemistry is the science and study of matter, including its properties,

composition as well as reactivity. Chemistry relates everything that can be
sensed from the minute elements to complex structures. The atom and
molecules are the basic unit or components of Chemistry. The study of
chemistry is integral to the study of pharmacy, since pharmaceutical science
studies how different medications react chemically with the chemicals within
the human body. Life itself can be summarized as the sum total of chemical
reactions within an organism. Pharmaceutical substances are designed to
control or otherwise alter those reactions.
This lesson was designed to introduce students the key concepts of
chemistry through flexible learning. In particular, this lesson will help students
make the transition from their K-12 studies to university-level study, and will
make sure that all students have a firm foundation in these fundamental topics,
which will underpin much of their future work in the Pharmacy course.

Presentation of Outcomes
Having successfully completed this lesson the student must have:
1. Explained the basic chemical concepts with respect to properties of matter;
physical states of matter; physical and chemical changes; the law of conservation
of mass, law of definite composition and classification of elements;
2. executed basic mathematical calculation in chemistry;
3. integrated the concept of matter, atom, compounds and molecules in designing
pharmaceutical products; and
4. described the structure and periodic trends in the periodic table.

Warm-up Activity
Question…
Do you have mass? Volume? Then you MATTER.

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Learning Inputs/Central Activities (Lecture)
Lesson 1: Chemistry and its Branches
Chemistry is the study of the composition and properties of matter and the changes it
undergoes. Chemistry has been divided into a number of different branches that often
overlap with each other or with other sciences such as physics, biology or geology.

Branches:
a. Physical Chemistry deals with the application of physical laws to chemical systems
and chemical change.
§ It studies how matter behaves and its physical arrangement. This includes rates or
reactions, or what causes a reaction to occur quickly or slowly.
b. Analytical chemistry focuses on identifying and quantifying matter. It asks “what is
this? How much is there in this substance?
c. Biochemistry is the chemistry of living organisms and life processes.
d. Organic chemistry is the study of the carbon compounds that make up the majority
of living things. Organic chemists have learned how to convert raw materials from
coal, petroleum, and grain into synthetic textiles, pesticides, dyes, drugs, plastics, and
many other products.
e. Inorganic chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of inorganic
compounds. Inorganic compounds are compounds which do not contain carbon-
hydrogen bond.

Lesson 2: Matter and Energy

Energy is the fundamental component of the universe commonly described as the
capacity to do work. The different forms of energy include heat, light, electric,
mechanical, sound, chemical and atomic. While there are different forms of energy, all
the different forms can be put into two categories: kinetic energy (energy of motion)
and potential energy (stored energy).

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter exists in one of the five
phases or states: solids liquid, gas, plasma and bose-eistein condensate.

States of Matter:
a. Solids- has definite shape and occupies a definite volume.
b. Liquids- have no definite shape, but with definite volume.
c. Gas (or vapor)- has no definite shape and volume.
d. Plasma- is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of
positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons. Example of plasmas are
those found in some kinds of fluorescent lights, neon signs and lightning.
e. Bose-Eistein Condensate- is a state of matter in which separate atoms or
subatomic particles, cooled to near absolute zero. When they reach that
temperature, the atoms are hardly moving relative to each other; they have
almost no free energy to do so. At that point, the atoms begin to clump together,
and enter the same energy states.

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How do we classify matter?

The principal classes are pure substances and mixtures. A pure substance has a constant
composition that does not vary, no matter what its source or how much of it there is. A
mixture is matter composed of two or more substances that can be separated from one
another by a physical process.

Pure substances are subdivided into two groups:

a. Element- a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
Elements are classified as metal, non-metal and metalloids.
b. Compound- substance formed when two or more chemical elements are
chemically bonded together.

Mixtures are further classified based on the nature particles:

a. Homogeneous mixture- the substances making up the mixture are distributed
uniformly, and the composition and appearance of the mixture are uniform
throughout.
b. Heterogeneous mixture- is a mixture whose constituent substances are not
completely and uniformly mixed throughout the entire mixture.

Laboratory techniques for separation of mixtures:

1. Evaporation- a process by which water changes from liquid to a gas or vapor.
2. Distillation- a separation technique used to separate components of a liquid
mixture by a process of heating and cooling, which exploits the differences in the
volatility of each of the components.
3. Filtration-a separation technique used to separate the components of a mixture
containing an undissolved solid in a liquid. It may be done cold or hot, using gravity
or applying vacuum, using a Buchner or Hirsh funnel or a simple glass funnel.

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4. Chromatography- the most important method for the separation of mixtures into
its components. The two elements of chromatography are the stationary phase and
the mobile phase. Types of chromatography include thin layer chromatography,
column chromatography and gas chromatography.
5. Sublimation- a direct change of state from solid to gas.
6. Sedimentation and Decantation-applicable when one component is liquid and
another component is an insoluble solid that is heavier than the liquid.
7. Crystallization- it involves the formation of crystals from a liquid or gas.

Properties of Matter
The properties of matter refer to the qualities/attributes that distinguish one sample of
matter from another. These properties are generally grouped into two categories:
physical or chemical.

1. Physical properties- these properties describe the physical characteristics of a

substance. Further classified as:
a. Intensive property- is a bulk property, meaning that is does not depend on the
size or amount of material in the system. It is a physical property that will be
the same regardless of the amount of matter.
b. Extensive property- a physical property that will change if the amount of
matter changes.
2. Chemical properties- these properties enables a substance to change into a brand-
new substance, and they describe how a substance reacts with other substances.

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Types of Changes
Substances can undergo various changes in properties; these changes may be classified
as either physical or chemical.
a. Physical change- occur when substances or objects undergo a change without
changing into another substance. Some types of physical changes include changes
of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa), separation of a
mixture, physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching) and making solutions
(special kind of mixtures).
b. Chemical change- are changes substances undergo when they become new or
different substances. Observations that help to indicate chemical change include
temperature changes (either the temperature increases or decreases), light is given
off, unexpected color changes, bubbles are formed, different smell or taste,
precipitation.

Lesson 3: Measurement of Matter

The International System of Measurement (SI for Systeme International d’Unites)

commonly known as the metric system was developed to provide a very organized,
precise, and practical system of measurement.
a. Measuring Length. Meter (m) is the standard unit of length in the SI system

b. Measuring mass. Mass is a physical property that measures the amount of matter
in an object. It is measured in SI units by the kilogram, metric gram, milligram and
microgram are more commonly used. Since mass is the amount of material in an
object, it stays the same no matter what force is acting on it.
c. Weight is the mass of an object being acted upon by gravity. The weight of an object
is proportional to its mass. The mass of the object remains the same but the weight
is different.
d. Measuring temperature. Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy.
Celsius degree (OC) is the common unit of temperature measurement

e. Measuring volume. Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object and is

measured in SI units by the cubic meter (m3).

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f. Measuring density. Density is an intensive property that relates the mass of an object
to its volume. It is how compact an object is; how much mass/matter is in a given
volume.

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a way to write numbers using a power of ten.

***Positive exponents are for LARGE numbers (10 or more)
***Negative exponents are for SMALL numbers (less than 1)

§ To write a number in scientific notation:

a. Locate the decimal point.
b. Move it to a location that will give you a number between 1 and 10 (or 1 exactly).
c. Write this new number down, followed by “x10”.
d. Count how many times you had to move the decimal point. Use this number as
your exponent.
e. Decide the sign of the exponent. Large number makes exponent positive. Small
number makes exponent negative and number less than 10 but at least 1 makes
an exponent of zero.

§ To write a number in standard notation:

a. Use the exponent to determine if the number is large or small.
b. Determine which way to move the decimal point.
c. Move the decimal point the number of times the exponent says to.
d. Write the number you now have.

Examples:
a. Write 3,500,000 in scientific notation.
3,500,000 à 3.5 x 106

b. Write 4.59 x107 in standard form.

Ans. 45,900,000

Lesson 4: Basic Atomic Structure (Atoms, Elements, Ions, Compounds and Molecules)
Three Fundamental Laws
a. Law of Conservation of mass (Antoine Lavoisier, 1743-1794) states that matter is

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 neither created nor destroyed.

Same number and type of

elements (matter) on either
side

b. Law of definite proportions states that a given compound always contains exactly
the same proportion (ratio) of elements by mass. In the example given below, the
ratio of H:O atoms in water is always 2H:1O within the one, definite compound H2O.

H2O is always 11.2% H and

88.8% O by mass

c. Law of multiple proportions states that when two elements form a series of
compounds, the ratios of the second elements that combine with the first element
can be reduced to small whole numbers.

Example: CO vs CO2

o In the multiple compounds, the ratio of “O” atoms per the one “C” atom is 2:1.
o Unlike the Law of Definite Proportions, here we are considering multiple
compounds and the ratio is between two of the same type of element.

Atomic Theory
The concept that atoms play a fundamental role in chemistry is formalized by the
modern atomic theory which was first stated by John Dalton, an English scientist, in
1808. According to Dalton’s Atomic theory:
1. All matter consists of atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms
of all other elements.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements are combined. A
given compound always has the same relative number and types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions only involve the rearrangement of atoms. Atoms are not
created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
5. Atoms cannot be divided any further.

Two hundred years later, Dalton’s Atomic Theory only has two modifications that must
be made. In theory 2 above, atoms of a given element are not always identical
(isotopes). In theory 5, atoms can be divided further into the 3 subatomic particles:
proton, electron and neutron.

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ATOMS
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an
element. Atom is composed of three subatomic particles namely:
a. Electrons are negatively charged particles revolving around the nucleus in
orbits of fixed energy.
b. Protons are positively charged particles residing in the nucleus.
c. Neutrons were identified by James Chadwick in 1932. These are neutral
particles (no charge) residing in the nucleus with protons.

ELEMENTS are specific types of atoms and are represented by a chemical symbol.

Atomic Number- is defined as the number of unit positive charges on the nucleus
(nuclear charge) of the atom of that element.
§ It is denoted by z. it is the number of protons and this number is equal to the
number of electrons in a neutral atom.

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

Example:

Element # of protons # of electrons Atomic # (Z)

Carbon 6 6 6
Phosphorous 15 15 15
Gold 79 79 79

Atomic weight- also called relative atomic mass, ratio of the average weight of an
element with respect to all its isotopes and their relative abundances.

Mass number- is equal to the sum of its number of protons plus

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Nuclides- refer to the nuclei of any element with their particular combination of
neutrons and protons.
Example:

Nuclide p+ n0 e- Mass #
Oxygen 8 10 8 18
Arsenic 33 42 33 75
Phosphorous 15 16 15 31

Ions are charged particles. They are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
§ Positive ions (cations) are formed when a neutral atom loses electrons.
§ Negative ions (anions) are formed when a neutral atoms gains electrons. Metallic
atoms tend to lose electrons to form positive ions (also known as cations).
Nonmetallic atoms tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (aka anions).

Isotopes- atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons.
§ Characteristics:
a. They have the same atomic number (same number of protons), but a different
atomic mass number (a different number of neutrons).
b. Isotopes behave the same chemically, because they are the same element. The
only difference is that one is heavier than the other, because of the additional
neutrons.

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A compound is a substance in which two or more different elements are CHEMICALLY
bonded together. Ex. NaCl (tablet salt)

A molecule is a collection of atoms chemically bonded together in characteristic pattern

and proportion.

Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers are defined as a set of 4 numbers with the help of which we can get
complete information about all the electrons in an atom, i.e location, energy, the type
of orbital occupied, space and orientation of that orbital. Each electron can be
characterized by a set of four quantum numbers as follows:
a. Principal quantum number (n)- n = 1,2,3,…,8. Specifies the energy of an electron
and the size of the orbitals. All orbitals that have the same value of n are said to be
in the same shell (level). For a hydrogen atom with n= 1, the electron is in its ground
state; if the electron is in the n=2, it is in an excited state. The total number of
orbitals for a given n value is n2.
b. Angular Momentum (secondary, Azimuthal) Quantum Number (l)- l =0, …, n-1.
Specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal quantum number. The
secondary quantum number divides the shells into smaller groups of orbitals called
subshells (sublevels).

The subshell with n=2 and l=1 is the 2p subshell; if n=3 and l=0, it is the 3s subshell, and
so on.

c. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)- ml = -l, …, 0, …, +l. Specifies the orientation in

space of an orbital of a given energy (n) and shape (l). this number divides the
subshell into individual orbitals which hold the electrons; there are 2l +1 orbitals in
each subshell.

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 d. Spin Quantum Number (ms)- ms = +1/2 or -1/2. Specifies the orientation of the
spin axis of an electron. An electron can spin in only one of two directions
(sometimes called up and down).

Sample Problem:

1. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number
n=3?

Solution: For n=3, the possible values of l are 0,1 and 2. Thus there is one 3s orbital
(n=3, l=0 and ml= 0); there are 3p orbitals ((n = 3, l = 1 and ml = –1, 0, +1); there
are five 3d orbitals (n = 3, l = 2 and ml = –2, –1, 0, +1+, +2)

a. Therefore, the total number of orbitals is 1+3+5 = 9

2. Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers
(a) n = 2, l = 1, (b) n = 4, l = 0, (c) n = 5, l = 3, (d) n = 3, l = 2

n l orbital
a 1 2 2p
B 0 4 4s
c 3 5 5f
d 2 3 3d

Writing Electron Configurations

Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom.
§ Rules for building up the electron configuration for an atom:
a. Aufbau Principle. “build up”; it dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals
having lower energies before occupying higher energy orbitals. According to this
principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,

4d, 5p , 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…

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b. Pauli Exclusion Principle. states that a maximum of two electrons, each having
opposite spins, can fit in an orbital. This principle can also be stated as “no two
electrons in the same atom have the same values for all quantum numbers”

c. Hund’s Rule. when electron filling occurs in an orbital, each orientation of the
orbital is first singly occupied and only after this pairing occurs.

Introduction to Periodic Table

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements by increasing

atomic number which displays the elements so that one may see trends in their
properties.
a. History of the periodic table
§ Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1829)- classified some elements into groups of
three, which he called triads. The elements in a triad had similar chemical
properties and orderly physical properties.
§ John Newlands (1863)- suggested that elements be arranged in ”octaves”
because he noticed (after arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic
mass) that certain properties repeated every 8th element.
§ Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)- published a table of elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.
§ Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)- published his own table of elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.
§ Henry Moseley (1913)- through his work with X-rays, he determined the actual
nuclear charge (atomic number) of the elements. He rearranged the elements
in order of increasing atomic number.
§ Glenn T. Seaborg (1944)- after co-discovering 10 new elements, he oved 14
elements out of the main body of the periodic table to their current location
below the Lanthanide series. These became known as the Actinide series. He is
the only person to have an element named after him while still alive.

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b. Periodicity (Periodic Law)- regular variations or patterns of properties with
increasing atomic weight; both chemical and physical properties vary in a “periodic”
way (repeating pattern)

c. Types of Elements
§ Metals
o Located at the middle and on the left of the periodic table
o good conductors of heat and electricity
o they are shiny, ductile (can be stretched into thin wires) and malleable (can
be pounded into thin sheets).
§ Non-Metals
o Located on the upper-right and right side of the periodic table except
Hydrogen.
o tend to gain electrons to form anions
o poor conductors of heat and electricity
o not ductile or malleable and dull
o Solid non-metals are brittle and break easily.
o Many are gases.
§ Metalloids (Semi-metals)
o Share properties of both metals and non-metals.
o are solids that can be shiny or dull
o conduct heat and electricity better than non-metals but not as well as
metals (semi-conductors)
o are ductile and malleable
o There are 8 of them, located in a staircase pattern between metals and
nonmetals: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium,
polonium, astatine.

d. Structure of Periodic table

The 18 vertical columns are known as groups (family) and are arranged from left to right
and the seven horizontal rows are known as periods.
§ Main Group Elements (Vertical Groups)
o Group 1 (IA) – Alkali Metals
o Group 2 (IIA)- Alkaline Earth Metals
o Group 13 (IIIA)- Boron Family
o Group 14 (IVA)-Carbon Family
o Group 15 (VA)- Nitrogen Family
o Group 16 (VIA)- Oxygen Family (Chalcogens)
o Group 17 (VIIA)- Halogens
o Group 18 (VIIIA)- Noble Gases
§ Other Groups (Vertical and Horizontal groups)
o Group 3-12 (IB-8B)- Transition metals
o Period 6 Group- Lanthanides (rare earth elements)
o Period 7 Group- Actinides

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e. Periodic Properties

§ Atomic radius is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost
shell containing electrons.
o It increases as you move down a group because electrons are added to
higher energy levels (farther away from the nucleus).
o It decreases as move from left to right across a period because as the
number of protons in the nucleus increases, the positive charge increases
and as a result, the “pull” on the electrons increases.

§ Ionization energy is the energy required to remove outer electrons and it results
in the formation of a positive ion.
o It decreases as you move down a group because electrons are in higher
energy levels as you move down a group; they are father away from the
positive “pull” of the nucleus and therefore easier to remove.
o It increases as you move from L to R across a period because the increasing
charge in the nucleus as you move across a period exerts greater “pull” on
the electrons; it requires more energy to remove an electron.

§ Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons of another

atom.
o It decreases as you move down a group because higher energy levels means
the electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
o It increases as you move across a period (noble gases are excluded) because
nuclear charge is increasing and atomic radius is decreasing.

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Activity 1: Online Lecture
• You are requested to download the video related to the topic posted in the mVLE
course page on August 26, 2020, 3:00 PM.

Activity 2: Self-check quiz

• You are requested to answer short quiz to help you check your understanding of
the content of the lesson. The said quiz will not be submitted and graded and you
can take it as many times as you need. The quiz will be posted on August 27, 2020,
8:00 AM.

Learning Inputs/Central Activities (Laboratory)

Overview
• Chemistry, like any branch of science, is a quantitative and experimental in nature.
• Students usually spend their time in the laboratory investigating and verifying
chemical principles. It is the place where you will test hypothesis, observe and
make inferences or generalizations as you explore phenomena.
• For the activities or objectives to be realized, the pharmacy laboratory is
equipped with the different apparatus and equipment.
• Since Chemistry wet laboratories contain inherent dangers and hazards,
awareness and practice of the procedures and precautions are deemed
important for the students to follow.
• So, as a pharmacy student working in a laboratory, you must learn how to work
safely with these hazards in order to prevent injury to yourself and others
around you. Proper handling and proper use of each apparatus or equipment is

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 necessary for safety reasons and to decrease the occurrence of accidents in the
laboratory.

Laboratory Activity 1
Common Laboratory Apparatus and Safety Precautions in the Laboratory
§ Make a video presentation on proper handling of glasswares in the laboratory.
§ Make 2-3 documentations (pictures which can be downloaded in the internet) and
present it during the synchronous session on August 31, 2020.
Wrap-Up Activity
1. Discussion Forum (Open-ended questions)
• You are expected to participate in the discussion forum scheduled on August
31, 2020 (unless otherwise rescheduled), Monday via the mVLE
BIGBlueButtonBN.
• An invitation link will be available in the mVLE course site.
• Open-ended questions will be asked randomly among students during the
discussion proper.
• In addition, students are also given opportunity to ask/raise any question or
make clarifications during the discussion.

Assessment (Post-Assessment)
Online Exam 1
• You are required to take the Post-Test on Topics 1,2,3 and 4.
• The link will be posted on August 31, 2020 (Monday) 3:00 PM in the mVLE Quiz
Portal.
• Accomplish and submit the said exam on or before 11:59 PM on the same date
Problem-Based Learning Task 1
Worksheet
• A detailed instruction will be available in the mVLE course page assignment portal
on August 27, 2020, 1:00 PM.
• Submit your output on or before 11:59 pm, August 31, 2020 (Monday) via the same
portal in mVLE.
Laboratory-Based Learning Task 1
Laboratory Exercise
• Submit your documented video presentation and 2-3 documented pictures on the
proper handling of laboratory glasswares and safety precautions in laboratory,
respectively.
• Submit your output using the Assignment portal in the mVLE on or before 11:59,
August 20, 2020 (Sunday)
Course Facilitator

Kristian Gay D. Beltran

Assistant Professor II
Pharmacy Department
kdbeltran@mmsu.edu.ph

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