Chapter 1

Matter, Measurement,
and Problem Solving

許富銀
1.1 Atoms and Molecules

 Carbon monoxide gas is composed of carbon

monoxide molecules.
 Each molecule contains a carbon atom and an
oxygen atom held together by a chemical bond.
 Atoms are the submicroscopic particles that constitute
the fundamental building blocks of ordinary matter.
 Free atoms are rare in nature; instead they bind
together in specific geometrical arrangements to form
molecules.
 Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand
the behavior of matter by studying the behavior of
atoms and molecules.
1.2 The Scientific Approach to
Knowledge

 The approach to scientific knowledge is empirical—it is

based on observation and experiment.
 The scientific method is a process for understanding
nature by observing nature and its behavior, and by
conducting experiments to test our ideas.
 Key characteristics of the scientific method include
observation, formulation of hypotheses,
experimentation, and formulation of laws and
theories.
Observations

EX: Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) noticed that

there was no change in the total mass of
material within the container during combustion.
 Observations often lead scientists to formulate a
hypothesis.
Hypothesis

 A hypothesis is a tentative interpretation or

explanation of the observations.
– A good hypothesis is falsifiable , which means that it
makes predictions that can be confirmed or refuted by
further observations.
– The results of an experiment may support a
hypothesis or—prove it wrong—in which case the
scientist must modify or discard the hypothesis.
A Scientific Law

 A brief statement that summarizes past

observations and predicts future ones
– EX: “In a chemical reaction matter is neither
created nor destroyed.” ------ Law of
conservation of mass (質量守恆定律)
Theory

 One or more well-established hypotheses may

form the basis for a scientific theory.
 Theories are validated by experiments.
 Theories can never be conclusively proven
because some new observation or experiment
always has the potential to reveal a flaw.
The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
Conceptual Connection 1.1

Which statement best explains the difference between

a law and a theory?

(a) A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere

speculation.

(b) A law summarizes a series of related observations,

while a theory gives the underlying reasons for them.

(c) A theory describes what nature does; a law

describes why nature does it.
The Classification of Matter

 Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
 We can classify matter according to its state
(its physical form) and its composition (the
basic components that make it up).
The States of Matter

 Matter can be classified as solid, liquid,

or gas based on what properties it
exhibits.
– The state of matter changes from
solid to liquid to gas with increasing
temperature.
– The atoms or molecules have
different structures in solids, liquids,
and gases—leading to different
properties.
Solid Matter

 In solid matter, atoms or molecules pack close to each other in

fixed locations.
– Consequently, a solid has a fixed volume and rigid shape.
EX: Ice, aluminum, and diamond are good examples of solids.
 Solid matter may be crystalline—in which case its atoms or
molecules are in patterns with long-range, repeating order.
EX: Table salt
 Others may be amorphous, in which case its atoms or
molecules do not have any long-range order.
EX: glass
Liquid Matter

 In liquid matter, atoms or molecules pack about

as closely as they do in solid matter, but they are
free to move relative to each other.
 Liquids have fixed volume but not a fixed shape.
 Water, alcohol, and gasoline are all substances that
are liquids at room temperature.
Gaseous Matter

 In gaseous matter,
atoms or molecules
have a lot of space
between them.
 They are free to move
relative to one another.
 These qualities make
gases compressible.
The Classification of Matter by
Components

 Matter can also be classified according to its

composition: elements, compounds, and mixtures.
 The first division in the classification of matter is
between a pure substance and a mixture.
– A pure substance is made up of only one component and
its composition is invariant.
– A mixture, by contrast, is a substance composed of two or
more components in proportions that can vary from one
sample to another.
Classification of Pure Substances

 Pure substances categorize into two types:

– Elements: is a substance that cannot be chemically
broken down into simpler substances
– Compounds: is a substance composed of two or
more elements in fixed definite proportions.
 This categorization depends on whether or not
they can be broken down (or decomposed) into
simpler substances.
Classification of Mixtures

 Mixtures can be categorized into two types:

– Heterogeneous mixtures: is one in which the
composition varies from one region of the mixture to
another.
EX: Wet sand
– Homogeneous mixtures: is one made of multiple
substances, but appears to be one substance.
EX: Sweetened tea
 This categorization of mixture depends on how
uniformly the substances within them mix.
Separating Mixtures

 Mixtures are separable because the

different components have different
physical or chemical properties.
Ex: A mixture of sand and water can be
separated by decanting —carefully
pouring off the water into another
container.
EX: A mixture of an insoluble solid and a
liquid can be separated by filtration (過
濾) — process in which the mixture is
poured through filter paper in a funnel
Cont’d

EX: A homogeneous mixture of

liquids can usually be
separated by distillation (蒸餾)
– The mixture is heated to boil
off the more volatile (easily
vaporizable) liquid.
– The volatile liquid is then re-
condensed in a condenser
and collected in a separate
flask.
1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes

 Physical Change: alter only the state or appearance,

but not composition
– The atoms or molecules that compose a substance do not
change their identity during a physical change.
Ex: When water boils, it changes its state from a liquid to a gas.
 Chemical Change: alter the composition of matter
– During a chemical change, atoms rearrange, transforming
the original substances into different substances
Ex: Rusting of iron
Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Change

Chemical Change
Physical and Chemical Properties

 A physical property is a property that a

substance displays without changing its
composition.
EX: Odor, taste, color, appearance, melting point, boiling
point, and density
 A chemical property is a property that a substance
displays only by changing its composition via a
chemical change (or chemical reaction).
EX: flammability, corrosiveness, acidity, and toxicity.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Physical and Chemical
Changes and Properties
1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of
Physical and Chemical Change

 Energy is the capacity to do work.

 Work is defined as the action of a force
through a distance.
Energy

 Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the

motion of an object.
 Potential energy is the energy associated with
the position or composition of an object.
 Thermal energy is the energy associated with the
temperature of an object.
Note: Thermal energy is actually a type of kinetic energy
because it arises from the motion of the individual
atoms or molecules that make up an object.
Energy

 Energy is always conserved in a

physical or chemical change; it is
neither created nor destroyed -
law of conservation of energy (能
量守恆定律).
 Systems with high potential
energy tend to change in a
direction that lowers their
potential energy, releasing
energy into the surroundings.
1.6 The Units of Measurement

 The two most common unit systems are as

follows:
– Metric system, used in most of the world
– English system, used in the United States
 Scientists use the International System of Units
(SI), which is based on the metric system.
The Standard Units
A Measure of Length: Meter

 The meter (m) is slightly longer than a yard (1 yard is 36 inches,

while 1 meter is 39.37 inches).

 1 meter = 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North

Pole (through Paris). (舊的定義)
 The International Bureau of Weights and Measures now defines it
more precisely as the distance light travels through a vacuum in a
certain period of time, 1/299,792,458 second.
A Measure of Mass : Kilogram

 The mass of an object is a measure of the quantity of

matter within it.

 The SI unit of mass = kilogram (kg).

1 kg = 2 lb 3 oz

 A second common unit of mass is the gram (g).

One gram is 1/1000 kg.

 Weight of an object is a measure of the gravitational pull

on its matter.
Measure of Time: Second

 Measure of the duration of an event

 SI units = second (s)
 1 s is defined as the period of time it takes for a
specific number of radiation events of a specific
transition from cesium-133.
A Measure of Temperature: Kelvin

 The Kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.

 The temperature is a measure of the average
amount of kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
that compose the matter.
 Temperature also determines the direction of thermal
energy transfer, or what we commonly call heat.
 Thermal energy transfers from hot to cold objects.
 Kelvin scale (absolute scale) assigns 0 K
(absolute zero) to the coldest temperature
possible.
 Absolute zero (–273 °C or –459 °F) is the
temperature at which molecular motion virtually
stops. Lower temperatures do not exist.
Comparison of the Fahrenheit, Celsius,
and Kelvin Temperature Scales
 The Fahrenheit degree is five-ninths the
size of a Celsius degree.
 The Celsius degree and the Kelvin degree
are the same size.
EXAMPLE 1.2 Converting between
Temperature Scales

 A sick child has a temperature of 40.00 °C. What is the

child’s temperature in (a) K and (b) °F?

Answer: (a)

(b)
Prefix Multipliers
Derived Units: Volume and Density

 A derived unit is a combination of other units.

EX: the SI unit for speed is meters per second (m/s), a
derived unit.
– EX: Volume Volume is a measure of space. Any unit
of length, when cubed (raised to the third power),
becomes a unit of volume. The cubic meter (m3) ,
cubic centimeter (cm3) , and cubic millimeter (mm3)
are all units of volume
Some Common Units and Their
Equivalents
Density

 The density ( d ) of a substance is the ratio of its mass

( m ) to its volume ( V ):

 Intensive property is independent of the amount of the

substance.
EX: density
 Extensive property depends on the amount of the
substance.
Ex: volume , mass
1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement

 Scientific measurements are reported so that

every digit is certain except the last, which is
estimated.
EX:

The first three digits are certain; the last digit is

estimated.
Significant Figures (有效數字)

 Significant figures deal with writing numbers to

reflect precision.
 The precision of a measurement depends on
the instrument used to make the measurement.
 The preservation of this precision during
calculations can be accomplished by using
significant figures.
 The greater the number of significant figures, the
greater the certainty of the measurement.
 To determine the number of significant figures in
a number, follow these rules
 Exact Numbers

 Exact numbers have an unlimited number of significant figures.

 Exact numbers originate from three sources:
– From the accurate counting of discrete objects. For example, 3
atoms means 3.00000.... atoms.
– From defined quantities, such as the number of centimeters in 1 m.
Because 100 cm is defined as 1 m
100 figures. cm = 1 m means 100.00000… cm =1.0000000… m
– From integral numbers that are part of an equation. For example, in
the equation radius = diameter/2, the number 2 is exact and
therefore has an unlimited number of significant
EXAMPLE 1.5 Determining the Number
of Significant Figures in a Number

 How many significant figures are in each

number?
Significant Figures in Calculations

 Multiplication and Division Rule:

In multiplication or division, the result carries the
same number of significant figures as the factor with
the fewest significant figures.
Significant Figures in Calculations

 Addition and Subtraction Rule:

In addition or subtraction the result carries the same
number of decimal places as the quantity with the
fewest decimal places.
Significant Figures in Calculations

Rules for Rounding:

 When rounding to the correct number of
significant figures,
– round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is
four or less;

– round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is

five or more.

Note : 四捨五入
 EX:
Round to two significant figures:

5.37 rounds to 5.4

5.34 rounds to 5.3
5.35 rounds to 5.4
5.349 rounds to 5.3
Rounding in Multistep Calculations

 To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations

round only the final answer.
 Do not round intermediate steps. If you write down
intermediate answers, keep track of significant
figures by underlining the least significant digit.
EX:
EXAMPLE 1.6 Significant Figures in
Calculations
Precision and Accuracy

 Accuracy (準確度) refers to how close the

measured value is to the actual value.
 Precision (精密度) refers to how close a series of
measurements are to one another or how
reproducible they are.
Precision and Accuracy

Ex: Consider the results of three students

who repeatedly weighed a lead block
known to have a true mass of 10.00 g
(indicated by the solid horizontal blue
line on the graphs).
1.8 Solving Chemical Problems

 Most chemistry problems you will solve in this course are unit
conversion problems.
 Using units as a guide to solving problems is called
dimensional analysis.
 A unit equation is a statement of two equivalent quantities, such
as 2.54 cm = 1 in.
 Conversion factor —a fractional quantity with the
units we are converting from on the bottom and the
units we are converting to on the top.

EX: inch cm
conversion factor
Random error & systematic error

 The results of student A are both inaccurate (not

close to the true value) and imprecise (not consistent
with one another). The inconsistency is the result of
random error , error that has equal probability of
being too high or too low.
 The results of student B are precise (close to one
another in value) but inaccurate. The inaccuracy is
the result of systematic error , error that tends
toward being either too high or too low.