GEN CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE (Midterm)

Santa Lucia Catholic School, Inc.
MODULE IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY I

Burgos, Sta. Lucia, Ilocos Sur 1ST SEM (MIDTERM)
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
LESSON 1
TOPIC: THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS

OVERVIEW: Chemistry is often defined as the study of matter. Associated with this concept of matter are terms such as
substance, compound, element, mixture, etc. Matter is also described as possessing certain properties, e.g.
smell, color. We distinguish between physical or chemical properties. Substances can also undergo
changes, some of which are classified as physical changes and others as chemical changes
OBJECTIVES: After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them.
2. Recognize the formulas of common chemical substances.
3. Compare consumer products on the basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost.
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation and chromatography.
PRE-ASSESSMENT: See Page 29
LESSON CONTENT
DISCUSSION:
MATTER
Matter is the "stuff" that makes up the universe — everything that takes up space and has mass is matter.
Around 440 BCE, the Greek philosophers Leucippus and his student Democritus concluded that there must be a smallest unit of gold
that cannot be further broken down without it ceasing to be gold. They called this unit atom, meaning “uncuttable”. The five main
principles of Leucippus and Democritus; theory include the following:
1. All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny to
be seen by the naked eyes. They cannot be broken
down further into smaller portions. All forms of
matter result from the coming together or breaking
apart of atoms.
2. Atoms are in constant motion around an empty
space called void.
3. Atoms are completely solid.
4. Atoms are uniform, with no internal structure.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.
States of Matter
Matter can be described based on its state or phase, of which there are three main types – solid, liquid, and gas. Several new studies,
however, have revealed the existence of the fourth and fifth states referred to as plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate.
Solid
In a solid, particles are packed tightly together so they don't move much. The electrons of each atom are
constantly in motion, so the atoms have a small vibration, but they are fixed in their position. Because of
this, particles in a solid have very low kinetic energy.
Solids have a definite shape, as well as mass and volume, and do not conform to the shape of the container
in which they are placed. Solids also have a high density, meaning that the particles are tightly packed
together.
Liquids
In a liquid, the particles are more loosely packed than in a solid and are able to flow around each other,
giving the liquid an indefinite shape. Therefore, the liquid will conform to the shape of its container.
Much like solids, liquids (most of which have a lower density than solids) are incredibly difficult to
compress.
Gas
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In a gas, the particles have a great deal of space between them and have high kinetic energy. A gas has no
definite shape or volume. If unconfined, the particles of a gas will spread out indefinitely; if confined, the
gas will expand to fill its container. When a gas is put under pressure by reducing the volume of the
container, the space between particles is reduced and the gas is compressed.
Plasma
Plasma is not a common state of matter here on Earth, but it may be the most common state of matter in the
universe, according to the Jefferson Laboratory. Stars are essentially superheated balls of plasma.
Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy. The noble gases (helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing signs by using electricity to ionize
them to the plasma state.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
The Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) was created by scientists in 1995. Using a combination of lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell
and Carl Weiman, scientists at the Joint Institute for Lab Astrophysics (JILA) in Boulder, Colorado, cooled a sample of rubidium
to within a few degrees of absolute zero. At this extremely low temperature, molecular motion comes very close to stopping.
Since there is almost no kinetic energy being transferred from one atom to another, the atoms begin to clump together. There are
no longer thousands of separate atoms, just one "super atom."
A BEC is used to study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level. Light appears to slow down as it passes through a BEC,
allowing scientists to study the particle/wave paradox. A BEC also has many of the properties of a superfluid, or a fluid that flows
without friction. BECs are also used to simulate conditions that might exist in black holes.
Substances can change from one phase to another when the physical forces between the particles composing them are changed. One
factor that can induce phase change in matter is temperature.
Example: We use water as the substance.
 Melting – by adding heat, ice turns to liquid water.

 Evaporation – the addition of heat changes liquid water into water vapour
(gas).
 Condensation – turns water vapour into liquid.
 Freezing – further changes the liquid into ice (solid).
 Sublimation –transition from the solid state to the gaseous state without
passing through the liquid state. It may occur by heating or cooling the
matter; for example, dry ice is solidified carbon dioxide.
 Deposition – transforms a gas directly into a solid without going through
the liquid state.
Properties of Matter
All matter has physical and chemical properties.
Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can measure without changing the composition of the sample under study,
such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space occupied by a sample). Physical properties can be extensive or intensive.
 Extensive properties vary with the amount of the substance and include mass, weight, and volume.
 Intensive properties, in contrast, do not depend on the amount of the substance; they include color, melting point,
boiling point, electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature.
Example: Sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid that does not conduct electricity and has a melting point of 115.2 °C, no matter what
amount is examined.
Chemical property is one which is observed when matter undergoes a transformation that results in a change of composition.
Example: Gasoline will burn in air to form products which are very different from the original material. Iron will rust in moist air
to form a compound called iron oxide.
Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified as a pure substance or a mixture. The figure below illustrates the classifications and sub-classifications of
matter.
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Pure Substance – A pure substance has a constant composition. All specimens of a pure substance have exactly the same makeup
and properties. Pure substances may be divided into two classes: elements and compounds.
 Elements – cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes.
Example: Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Iron are familiar examples of the more than 100 known elements.
 Compounds – can be broken down by chemical changes are called compounds. This breakdown may produce either
elements or other compounds, or both.
Example: 1) Water (H2O) is broken down into Oxygen (O) and Hydrogen (H).
2) Table salt (NaCl) is broken down into Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl).
3) Ammonia (NH3) is broken down into Nitrogen (N) and Hydrogen (H).
Mixture – Mixtures are defined as matter which consists of two or more substances mixed together. A mixture can be either
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
 Heterogeneous mixture – mixture of two or more chemical substances (elements or compounds), where the different
components can be visually distinguished and easily separated by physical means.
Example: Pizza, Italian salad dressing, Solid waste dump
 Homogeneous mixture – mixture of two or more
chemical substances (elements or compounds), where
the different components cannot be visually
distinguished.
Example: Salt water, Mouthwash, alloys
Pure Substances and Mixtures in Consumer Products
A consumer product is any item often bought for consumption. Two examples of convenience products are household cleaning
products and personal care products.
Household Cleaning Materials
 Bleach
- It whitens your whites, cleans your floors and acts as a great sanitizer. But bleach can be quite hazardous when not handled
properly as it is mostly compost of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
- Sodium hypochlorite is a green/yellow liquid that smells like chlorine. It is a chemical compound comprised of sodium cation
and hypochlorite anion, two compounds with charges that attract one another.
- When using bleach for laundry, it is important to follow the dilution instructions on the label as bleach can burn through
material when applied singly without any water dilution. This is the same when using bleach in the home for disinfecting
purposes: it is recommended that there are four parts water to every one part of bleach. The dilution of bleach should always
be water.
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- Sodium Hypochlorite can affect you when inhaled. It can irritate the nose and throat. It can also irritate the lungs. Higher
exposure may cause a build-up of fluid in lungs (pulmonary edema), a medical emergency.
- Both NaOCL and H2O2 are strong oxidizers; they can burn the skin and eyes specially if used in concentrated forms.
 Soap and Detergent
- Soap and detergent are mixtures of surfactants (15%), bleach (7%), enzymes (2%), soil antideposition agents, foam
regulators, corrosion inhibitors, optical brighteners, dye transfer inhibitors, fragrances, dyes, fillers and formulation aids.
- Surfactants are responsible for most of the cleaning performance in laundry detergent. They provide this by absorption and
emulsification of soil into the water and also by reducing the water's surface tension to improve wetting.
- Soaps and detergent are generally nontoxic and severely dangerous, but they may cause irritation to the skin and eyes. They
may also cause some respiratory complications if inhaled in excessive amounts.
Personal Care Products
 Makeup
- Makeup is general term for products applied externally to the face. It includes foundations and lipsticks.
- A hazardous substance, which may not be intentionally added in makeup products, is lead. Lead is a metal that can cause
death if ingested in even very low dosages. A detectable level of this metal comes from pigments used as colorants.
- Other special ingredients are added in makeup to enhance the effect of the product. One of which are gold micro- or
nanoparticles, which are believed to provide anti-aging benefits. These special ingredients, however, may increase the cost of
the product.
 Lotion
- Lotions are generally used to moisturize or hydrate the skin. One common moisturizing agent is glycerine; which helps
provide hydration and gives the smooth feel of the skin. Other typical components of lotions serve as preservatives,
thickeners, colorants, emulsifiers, and solvents. Some lotions nowadays are improved for better sun protection and skin
whitening; but they are relatively more expensive than ordinary.
Separation Techniques
We can separate an analyte and an interferent if there is a significant difference in at least one of their chemical or physical properties.
In this lesson, we will only concentrate on two techniques: Distillation and Chromatography.
1. Distillation
Distillation is the separation of one

substance from another by
evaporation followed by
condensation. The apparatus used in
this technique is called a still.
Suppose we want to separate the

water and salt in seawater. We would
place the seawater in the round flask
on the left of the picture (in the
distillation flask). We would then boil
the seawater to produce water vapour,
or steam. The salt would not
evaporate with the water, because
only the water evaporates. The water
vapour rises through the top of the
flask and passes into the Liebig
condenser. Experimental setup for distillation
The Liebig condenser consists of a glass tube within a larger glass tube. The condenser is designed in such a way that cold water
can flow through the space between the tubes. This cools the surface of the inner tube. The water vapour condenses against this
cold surface and flows into the receiving flask. Since the salt has not evaporated, it stays behind in the distillation flask.
2. Chromatography
Chromatography is an analytical technique commonly used for separating a mixture of chemical substances into its individual
components, so that the individual components can be thoroughly analyzed.
Let me first explain what I was I had two reactants ‘A’ and ‘B’. I let them react with each other, under certain reaction
trying to do here. conditions, to form a product ‘C’. After the reaction was complete, I ended up with a
reaction mixture that contained unreacted A, unreacted B and my desired product C.
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Now my task was to separate out A, B and C to isolate and analyze pure product C.
First, as shown in the left hand side panel, I ran a thin

layer chromatography (TLC) plate. This is
basically a rectangular piece of glass plate, coated
with a thin layer of silica. I applied a spot of the reaction
mixture just above the base of the plate (denoted with
a solid line), and placed the plate in a jar that contained
an appropriate organic solvent, with just enough volume
to dip the lower edge of the plate. Gradually by capillary
action, the solvent started rising up the silica plate,
and as you can see the reaction mixture separated into 3
spots with distinct colors by the time the solvent had
reached the solvent front mark. From there, we can
now distinguish the 3 separated individual components.
Let’s visualize a simple experiment to exemplify the power

of a chromatographic separation.
1. Take a few leaves and crush them in a mortar.

2. Spot a drop of the leaf extract on a strip of chromatographic paper ~ 0.5 cm above the edge of the paper. Chromatographic
paper is made of cellulose and is quite polar in nature.
3. Place the strip of paper in a jar that contains a small volume of propanone (acetone). There should be just enough propanone
that the edge of the paper dips in it comfortably. Place a lid on the jar to avoid any evaporation of the solvent.
4. Let the solvent rise up the paper by capillary action. Remove the paper strip from the jar once the solvent has reached the
‘solvent front’ level.
5. What do you think you will notice?
The various components of the leaf pigment separate out! Could you have ever imagined that a leaf pigment
was made up of so many compounds?
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
LESSON 2
TOPIC: COMPOUNDS: WHEN ATOMS COMBINE

OVERVIEW: All the matter in the universe is composed of the atoms of more than 100 different chemical elements,
which are found both in pure form and combined in chemical compounds. A sample of any given pure
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element is composed only of the atoms characteristic of that element, and the atoms of each element are
unique.
1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.
2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models
3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of the compound
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation and chromatography.
LESSON CONTENT
DISCUSSION:
Inside the Atom
An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An atom

consists of a central nucleus that is usually surrounded by one or more electrons. Each
electron is negatively charged. The nucleus is positively charged, and contains one or
more relatively heavy particles known as protons and neutrons.
Electrons (e-) – negatively charged atom

Protons (p) – positively charged atom
Neutrons (n) – uncharged atom (neutral)
Atomic Number and Mass Number
An atom of an element may be represented in a certain configuration that includes its atomic number (Z) and mass
number (A), written as the left superscript and left subscript, respectively, of the element symbol.
(A)
(Z)
Atomic Number – represents the number of protons in its nucleus as well as the number of its electrons.
Z = number of protons = number of electrons
Mass Number – indicates the total number of protons and neutrons.

A = number of protons + number of neutrons
**number of neutrons = A – Z
Example: Find the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons of the element.
Given:
Atomic Number (Z) = 79
Mass Number (A) = 197 (round off)
Solution
 Proton = Electron = 79 (Take note that the atomic number of an element is equal to the number of its proton and electron)
 Neutron = A – Z = 197 – 79 = 118
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of
neutrons but the same number of protons and electrons. The difference in
the number of neutrons between the various isotopes of an element means
that the various isotopes have different masses but the same atomic number.
Another way of representing isotopes is by writing the element name or

symbol, followed by a hyphen then the mass number. Thus, Carbon isotopes can be written as Carbon-12 (C-12), Carbon-13 (C-13),
and Carbon-14 (C-14), respectively.
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Isotope Facts!
 All elements have isotopes.
 There are two main types of isotopes: stable and unstable (radioactive).
 There are 254 known stable isotopes.
 All artificial (lab-made) isotopes are unstable and therefore radioactive; scientists call them radioisotopes.
 Some elements can only exist in an unstable form (for example, uranium).
 Hydrogen is the only element whose isotopes have unique names: deuterium for hydrogen with one neutron and tritium for
hydrogen with two neutrons.
Some uses of isotopes
RECALL
The Periodic Table of Elements – is a tabular display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table shows periodic trends.
 Periods – the seven rows of the table generally have
metals on the left and nonmetals on the right.
 Groups – the columns contain elements with similar
chemical behaviours.
Example: The element Carbon (C) is found at Period 2 and
Group 14. See the given figure of Table of Elements on Page
Valence Electrons – are the electrons in the outer shell of an

atom. Example: The Carbon (C) element has a valence electron
of 4. See figure on the left.
The main group number for an element

can be found from its column on the
periodic table. For example, Sodium
(Na) is in Group 1 and has a valence
electron of 1. Oxygen is in group 6 and
has 6 valence electrons.
Most transition metals have 2 valence

electrons.
Ions –any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or negative electrical charges. Ions are formed by the addition
of electrons to, or the removal of valence electrons from, neutral atoms or molecules or other ions.
 Cations – positively charged ions (Metal elements most likely to give off or losses and eventually become positively
charged).
 Anions – negatively charged ions (Non-metal elements most likely to gain and eventually become negatively charged).
Elements can loss and gain electron to become stable (having a valence electron of 8, Octet Rule).
 Metal elements most likely to give off or losses all their valence electrons to become stable and eventually become
positively charged.
 Non-metal elements most likely to gain electrons to complete their valence electrons of 8 and eventually become
negatively charged.
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The number of electrons lost or gained is the charge number.
Example:
1. Sodium (Na), a metal, can lose 1 electron (because it only has 1 valence electron),
forming an atom with charge of +1 (because it loses 1 electron, so the charge is positive
+). It can now be written as Na1+ or simply Na+, and its new name is Sodium Cation.
2. Chlorine (Cl), a nonmetal, gains 1 electron (because it has 7 valence electron,

it only needs 1 electron to complete its valence electron of 8 to become stable)
and acquires a -1 charge (because it gains 1 electron and it becomes negative
-). It can now be written as Cl 1- or simple Cl-, and its new name is Chlorine
Anion.
3. Magnesium (Mg), a metal, can lose 2 electrons (because it only has 2 valence electrons),
forming an atom with charge of +2 (because it loses 2 electrons, so the charge is positive
+). It can now be written as Mg2+ and its new name is Magnesium Cation.
4. Sulfur (S), a nonmetal, gains 2 electrons (because it has 6

valence electrons, it only needs 2 electrons to complete its
valence electron of 8 to become stable) and acquires a -2
charge (because it gains 2 electrons and it becomes negative
-). It can now be written as S 2-, and its new name is Sulfur
Anion.
Take note: An ion that consists of only one atom is referred to as monatomic ion. Different atoms can also combine and form
polyatomic ions.
Monatomic Ions: Na+, Mg2+, Fe3+, S2-, Cl-

Polyatomic Ions: MnO4-, PO43-, HCO3-, SCN-
Naming Ions
 Metals with More Than One Ion
In the stock method, A Roman numeral indicating the

charge is written in parentheses after the English
name of the metal.
In the classical method, the ion with the lower charge

end with –ous, while that with the higher charge ends
with –ic. These suffixes are attached to the first few
syllables of the foreign name of the metal (not its
English Name).
stock classical
Fe2+ Iron(II) Ferrous
Fe3+ Iron(III) Ferric
 Nonmetals Ion
- Nonmetals Monatomic Anions: Attach the suffix –ide to the first few letters (root) of the nonmetal name.
Br- bromide
S2- sulfide
- Nonmetals Polyatomic Ions with Oxygen: The anion with lesser oxygen
atoms ends with –ite and the one with more oxygen atoms ends with –
ate.
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NO2- nitrite
NO3- nitrate
- Halogens Polyatomic Ions with Oxygen: The halogens can form four different polyatomic ions with oxygen. Each
ion is named differently depending on the number of oxygen atoms present in it.
1 O atom: ClO- hypochlorite (hypo + root + ite)
2 O atoms: ClO2- chlorite (root + ite)
3 O atoms: ClO3- chlorate (root + ate)
4 O atoms: ClO4- perchlorate (per + root + ate)
 Common Polyatomic Ions
Study the following common polyatomic ions on the given figure.
Ternary polyatomic ions (consisting of

three different elements) may be formed
by the addition of hydrogen atoms to
binary polyatomic ions (consisting of
two different elements).
Ternary Polyatomic Ion
=
Hydrogen + Binary Polyatomic Ion
If there is only one type of ternary ion

formed, a prefix bi is added to indicate
the presence of hydrogen in the chemical
formula.
Example 1: Hydrogen + Carbonate

H + CO32- → HCO3-
Bicarbonate or Hydrogen Carbonate
Example 2: Hydrogen + Phosphate

H + PO43- → HPO42-
Biphosphate or Hydrogen Phosphate
If there are several types of ions formed

with hydrogen, Greek prefixes are used
to indicate the number of hydrogen
atoms present in the ion.
Example 1: 2 Hydrogen +
Phospate
2H + PO43- → H2PO4- (Dihydrogen Phospate)
Example 2: 2 Hydrogen + Phospite

2H + PO33-- → H2PO3- (Dihydrogen Phospite)
As you have observed, when adding Hydrogen atom to a Binary Polyatomic Ion with Oxygen, just
subtract the number of Hydrogen atom on the superscript of the Oxygen atom.
If you added one Hydrogen atom, subtract 1 from the superscript of the Oxygen atom.
H + CO32- → HCO3- H + PO43- → HPO42-
If you added two Hydrogen atoms, subtract 2 from the superscript of the Oxygen atom.
2H + PO43- → H2PO4-2H + PO33-- → H2PO3-
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compound results from an attraction between a cation and an anion. It is an attraction between one metal element and one
nonmetal element. Metal elements will lose their electrons and the nonmetal element will gain it until both elements become stable
(having a valence electron of 8).
Steps in Forming Ionic Compound:
Combining a Metal and a Nonmetal Element
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1. Between the two elements identify which of them are the metal and the nonmetal. Metal element is written before the
nonmetal element.
2. Write their ion type. Refer to their valence electrons. Take note that for metal it will loss electrons so it is positively charge,
and for nonmetal it will gain electron so it is negatively charged.
3. Apply the crisscross rule. The superscript of metal will be transferred as the subscript of the nonmetal, and the superscript of
the nonmetal will be transferred as the subscript of the metal. Disregard the sign (+ and -) when writing it as a subscript.
4. Write the resulting chemical formula. If the formula contains reducible subscripts, express them in simplest form.
5. Identify the compound name. Apply the rules in naming ions: In naming the metal ion, use its classical name or its stock
name (refer to the table of Metals with More than One Ion), if the element is not included in that table, then as is; In naming
the nonmetal ion, add the suffix –ide in its root. Note that Greek prefixes are not used in naming ionic compound.
Example: Find the compound formed by combining Copper and Oxygen.
Step-by-step Solution:
Step 1: Copper Cu (metal) and Oxygen O (nonmetal).
Step 2: Cu2+ (Copper has 2 valence electrons and it is a metal, so it will lose 2 electrons. The charge is +2)
O2- (Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and it is nonmetal, so it will gain 2 electrons. The charge is -2)
Step 3: Cu2+ O2- → Cu2O2 or CuO (Both of their subscript is 2, which can be reducible)
Step 4: Cu2+ + O2- → CuO

Step 5: Copper(II) Oxide or Cupric Oxide
Final Answer: Cu2+ + O2- → CuO (Copper(II) Oxide or Cupric Oxide)
Combining a Metal Element and a Binary Ion

1. Metal element is written before the binary ion.
2. Write their ion type. For the binary ion, refer to the given table of Common Polyatomic Ions.
3. Apply the crisscross rule. The superscript of metal will be transferred as the subscript of the binary ion, and the superscript of
the binary ion will be transferred as the subscript of the metal. Disregard the sign (+ and -) when writing it as a subscript. For
a polyatomic ion requiring a subscript other than 1, the ion is enclosed in parentheses before the subscript is written.
4. Write the resulting chemical formula. If the formula contains reducible subscripts, express them in simplest form.
5. Identify the compound name. Apply the rules in naming ions: In naming the metal ion, use its classical name or its stock
name (refer to the table of Metals with More than One Ion), if the element is not included in that table, then as is;; Use the
given name of the binary ion used, refer to the table on the previous page. Note that Greek prefixes are not used in naming
ionic compound.
Example: Find the compound formed by combining Lead and Nitrate.
Step-by-step Solution:
Step 1: Lead Pb (metal) and NO3- (binary ion).
Step 2: Pb2+ (Lead has 2 valence electrons and it is a metal, so it will lose 2 electrons. The charge is +2)
NO3- (Nitrate ion is already given. Refer to the table of Polyatomic ions. The charge is -1)
Step 3: Pb2+ NO3- → Pb1(NO3)2 or Pb(NO3)2 (You can disregard the subscript 1)
Step 4: Pb2+ + NO3-- → Pb(NO3)2

Step 5: Lead(II) Nitrate or Plumbous Nitrate
Final Answer: Pb2+ + NO3-- → Pb(NO3)2 (Lead(II) Nitrate or Plumbous Nitrate)
TAKE NOTE: In naming ionic compounds, refer to their ion type, not specifically to its chemical formula.
Sample Exercises 1:
I. Name the following ionic compounds.
1. Fe2S3
Answer: In naming ionic compounds, trace first the ion type of the elements involved in the compound. Using the idea in
Crisscross Method, observe that in Fe2, its subscript 2 is originally the superscript of Sulfur S, and from S 3, its subscript 3
is originally the superscript of Iron Fe. Meaning, their ion type is Fe3+ and S2.
Fe3+→ Iron(III) or Ferric
S2 → Sulfide
Therefore, the chemical name of Fe2S3 is Iron(III) Sulfide or Ferric Sulfide.
2. Ca3(PO4)2
Answer: Using the idea in Crisscross Method, observe that in Ca 3, its subscript 3 is originally the superscript of
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Phosphate PO4, and from (PO4)2, its subscript 2 is originally the superscript of Calcium Ca. Meaning, their ion type is
Ca2+ and PO43-.
Ca2+ → Calcium (Ca2+ is not included in the table of Metals with More than One Ion)
PO43 → Phosphate (refer to the table of Polyatomic Ions).
Therefore, the chemical name of Ca3(PO4)2 is Calcium Phosphate.
II. Write the compound given its chemical name.

1. Cupric Oxide
Answer: In determining the compound basing on its chemical name, refer to the tables given under naming ions. Indicate
their charge.
Cupric → Cu2+ (Based on the table of Metals with More Than One Ion)
Oxide → O (From the root word “ox” in the oxide, it is understandable that that is Oxygen)
→ O2- (Oxygen has a valence electron of 6, and it is nonmetal, so it needs 2 electrons. The charge is -2)
For you to be able to find the compound, you need to bond the two using the Crisscross method.
Cu2+ + O2- → Cu2O2 or simply CuO
2. Potassium Chromate
Answer: In determining the compound basing on its chemical name, refer to the tables given under naming ions. Indicate
their charge.
Potassium → K or K+ (Potassium has a valence electron of 1, and it is metal, so it losses 1 electron. The charge is +1)
Chromate → CrO42- (Based on the table of Common Polyatomic Ions)
For you to be able to find the compound, you need to bond the two using the Crisscross method.
K+ + CrO42- → K2CrO4
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent compound results when two or more nonmetals share electrons. Thus, the covalent compounds exist as molecules. Here,
no ions are involved.
Naming binary covalent compound utilizes Greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms
of the element present in the chemical formula.
 The first element is prefixed and named in full; the second element is named using
its first few syllables and suffixed with –ide.
Example: Cl2O7 → Dichlorine Heptoxide
 The prefix mono- is seldom used on the first element in the formula but must use
on the second element.
Example: NO → Nitrogen Monoxide, CO2 → Carbon Monoxide N2O →
Dinitrogen Monoxide
 The letter “a” in the prefix is usually dropped when followed by a vowel.
Example: N2O4 → Dinitrogen Tetraoxide → Dinitrogen Tetroxide
Some binary covalent compounds are not named systematically, but rather take trivial
names.
Examples: H2O → Water NH3 → Ammonia
TAKE NOTE: Ionic and Covalent Compounds have different rules in naming them. Before naming and writing
chemical formula of a certain compound, identify first if they are Ionic Compound or Covalent Compound. If the
given compound has a Metal Element on it, then it is Ionic Compound. But if all the included elements in that
compound are Nonmetal Elements, then it is Covalent Compound.
How would you know if it is a Metal or Nonmetal Element? Very Simple! Just look on the given periodic table of
elements and identify there.
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NAME
GRADE & SECTION
LESSON 3
TOPIC: ATOMS IN REACTIONS

OVERVIEW: All elements are most stable when their outermost shell is filled with electrons according to the octet rule,
which we have discussed on the previous lesson. This is because it is energetically favourable for atoms to
be in that configuration and it makes them stable. However, since not all elements have enough electrons to
fill their outermost shells, atoms form chemical bonds with other atoms thereby obtaining the electrons they
need to attain a stable electron configuration. When two or more atoms chemically bond with each other,
the resultant chemical structure is a molecule. In this lesson, you will learn more about chemical reactions.
1. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound.
2. Calculate molecular formula given molar mas.
3. Write and balanced chemical equations.
4. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the amount of reactant needed or
amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass.
5. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction.
6. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical reaction; identify the excess reagent(s).
LESSON CONTENT
DISCUSSION:
ATOMIC MASS
Masses of individual atoms are very, very small. To establish a universal scale for atomic mass, scientist agreed to use the most
abundant isotope of carbon, carbon-12, as a reference to express the atomic mass of each element.
Carbon-12 is assigned to have exactly 12 units of mass called atomic mass unit (amu) or 1.992657 ✕10-23 grams. One amu is
defined as 1/12 of the mass of C-12 isotope and is equal to 1.660539 ✕10-24 grams.
Mass of 1 atom of C-12 = 12.00 amu = 1.992657 ✕10-23 g
1 1
1 amu = (mass of C-12) = (1.992657 ✕10-23 g) = 1.660539 ✕10-24 g
12 12
Since elements may exist in different isotopic forms, a representative atomic mass for an
element –the average atomic mass – is obtained. Average atomic mass is the value Atomic number
indicated in the periodic table. It is the weighted average of the atomic masses of known
stable isotopes of an element based on percent isotopic abundances.
For example, Carbon has several known isotopes (C-12, C-13, and C-14), but only C-12
(with an atomic mass of 12.00 amu and percent abundance of 98.93%) and C-13 (with an Average atomic mass
(amu)
atomic mass of 13.0034 amu and percent abundance of 1.07%) are found stable and in
relativity significant amounts in nature. These two isotopes are the only ones considered in
determining the average atomic mass of carbon.
Given:
Atomic mass of C-12 = 12.00 amu Abundance of C-12 = 98.93% ✕100 = 0.9893
Atomic mass of C-13 = 13.0034 amu Abundance of C-13 = 1.07%) ✕100 = 0.0107
Note: Abundance should be in decimal not in percentage.
Solution:
average atomic mass of C=( atomicmass of 126C × abundance of 126C ) + ( atomic mass of 136C ×abundance of 136C )
average atomic mass of C=( 12.00 amu× 0.9893 ) + ( 13.0034 amu× 0.0107 )
average atomic mass of C=11.8716 amu +0.1391 amu
average atomic mass of C=12.0107 amu
That’s how we calculate the average atomic mass of elements, basing on their stable isotopes.
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MOLAR MASS
The mass of one mole of an element or compound is called its molar mass (MM), which is numerically equal to the atomic mass of
the element, the molecular mass of a covalent compound, or the formula mass of an ionic compound. Expressed in grams/mole, the
molar mass is obtained as the sum of the product of the atomic masses and the number of atoms of every element that comprise the
compound.
Examples:
1. Calculate the molar mass of sodium phosphate (Na3PO4).
Given: Atomic masses:Na = 22.99 amu, P = 30.97 amu, O = 16.00 amu

(refer to the atomic masses of each element on the given Periodic table of elements)
Solution: formula mass of Na3PO4 = (atomic mass of Na ✕ 3) + (atomic mass of P ✕ 1) +

(atomic mass of O ✕ 4)
= (22.99 amu ✕ 3) + (30.97 amu ✕ 1) + (16.00 amu ✕ 1)
= 68.97 amu + 30.97 amu + 64.00 amu
= 163.94 amu
Answer: The molar mass of Na3PO4 is 163.84 g/mol, the same value for the mass of Na 3PO4 formula unit (in amu)
but different scales.
2. Calculate the molar mass of carbon dioxide?
Given: Atomic masses:C = 12.01 amu, O = 16.00 amu
Solution: formula mass of CO2 = (atomic mass of C ✕ 1) + (atomic mass of O ✕ 2

= (12.01 amu ✕ 1) + (16.00 amu ✕ 2)
= 12.01 amu + 32.00 amu
= 44.01 amu
Answer: The molar mass of CO2 is 44.01 g/mol.
PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM THE MOLECULAR FORMULA
The mass of each element in a chemical formula as well as its percent composition in the compound may be obtained. The general
formula for calculating the percent composition of an element in a compound is given by
( atomic mass of A ) × ( number of atoms of A ∈thecompound )

% A= ×100
formula∨molecular mass of the compound
Note: Formula or molecular mass of the compound is also known as the molar mass.
Examples:
1. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is commonly used as an additive in the manufacture of glass, or as water softener and neutralizer
for chlorine in pools. It is commonly known as soda ash or washing soda. What are the percentages of each element in the
compound?
Given: Atomic masses: Na = 22.99 amu, C = 12.01 amu, O = 16.00 amu (refer to the Periodic table of elements)
Solution:
Formula mass of Na2CO3 = (atomic mass of Na × 2) + (atomic mass of C × 1) + (atomic mass of O × 3)
= (22.99 amu × 2) + (12.01 amu × 1) + (16.00 amu × 3)
= (45.98 amu) + (12.01 amu) + (48.00 amu)
= 105.99 amu
Applying the general formula for percent composition for each constituent element,
22.99 amu ×2 45.98 amu
% Na= × 100= ×100=0.4338× 100=43.38 %
105.99 amu 105.99 amu
12.01 amu × 1 12.01 amu
% C= ×100= ×100=0.11
105.99 amu 105.99 amu
16.00 amu ×3 48.00 amu
% O= ×100= ×100=0.45
105.99 amu 105.99 amu
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MOLECULAR FORMULA FROM PERCENT COMPOSITION
The molecular formula of a compound may also be derived from a given percent composition of its constituent elements. This usually
applies during a chemical analysis, when a compound is broken down into its elements to determine its percent composition.
Example:
Identify the molecular formula of a compound that was found to contain 40.00% carbon, 6.71% hydrogen, and 53.29% oxygen. The
molar mass of the compound is 60.05 g/mol.
Solution:
Step 1. Assume that 100 g of the compound is composed of the elements with masses corresponding to their percentage.
Therefore, from 40.00% carbon, 6.71% hydrogen, and 53.29% oxygen, we can write them as 40.00 g carbon, 6.71 g
hydrogen, and 53.29 g oxygen. Then convert each mass to moles using the formula
mole of element=( mass of element ∈compound ) × ( molar mass1molof element )

mole of C=40.00 g × ( 12.01
1 mol
g)
=3.33 mol
mole of H =6.71 g × (
1.008 g )
1 mol
=6.66 mol
mole of O=53.29 g × ( 16.00

1 mol
g)
=3.33 mol
** For the molar mass, refer to the atomic mass of each element
Then write the chemical formula using he mole of each element as its subscript: C3.33H6.66O3.33
Step 2. Find its empirical formula. The obtained chemical formula must be reduced to the simplest ratio of the subscripts by
dividing each subscript by the smallest subscript. Thus, divide each subscript by 3.33 because 3.33 is the smallest subscript
present on the chemical formula.
C 3.33 H 6.66 O3.33 → C H O

1 2 1
3.33 3.33 3.33
Recall that the subscript 1 is not written in the formula.
Empirical formula: CH2O
Step 3. Find its empirical mass or the mass of the empirical formula CH2O.
empirical mass=( atomic mass of A 1 × number of atoms of A 1∈the compound ) + ( atomic mass of A 2 ×
empirical mass = (12.01 amu × 1) + (1.008 amu × 2) + (16.00 amu × 1)

= (12.01 amu) + (2.016 amu) + (16.00 amu)
= 30.03 amu
Step 4. Compute the ratio of molar mass to empirical mass.
molar mass 60.05

ratio= = =2
empirical mass 30.03
Step 5. Multiply the ratio to each of the subscripts of the empirical formula to get the molecular formula of the compound.
Molecular formula: C ( 1 ×2 ) H ( 2 ×2 ) O ( 1 × 2) =¿ C2H4O2
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BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
New substances are always produced during a chemical

reaction, which can be represented by a chemical equation. A
chemical equation shows the identity of the reactants and
products and the relative amounts of these substances
consumed or produced in a chemical reaction.
Reactants → Products
In a chemical equation, the reactants are written at the left-

hand side, and the products at the right-hand side. For
example, when magnesium metal is ignited, it produces a very
bright glow as it reacts with oxygen in the air and turns into a
white powder. This process can be represented in a chemical
equation as
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Representing a chemical reaction by merely writing the chemical formula of the reactants and products does not automatically give the
correct relative amounts of the substances. Take for example the synthesis of ammonia. Ammonia is a pungent and colorless gas used
in fertilizers and cleaning agents. It is produced by the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gas. This reaction is written as
N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(s)
Notice that the numbers of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in the reactants side and the product side are not the same. There are 2 atoms
each of N and H at the reactants side, while 1 N and 3 H atoms in the product side. This equation is thus described as not balanced.
The law of conservation of mass states that “the number of each element in both sides of the equation should be equal.” Thus, the
chemical equation should be balanced by adjusting the chemical coefficients of the substances.
Balancing chemical equations is usually done by inspection, one element at a time. There are no definite steps to follow in the process.
Just keep in mind the following general rules:
 Rule 1: Start with the most complicated formula (the one with the greatest number of elements, if there is one) either among
the reactants or products. Balance first the element that appears only once in either of the reactants or products.
 Rule 2: The next element to balance is the one whose number was affected by the coefficient written on a formula when the
previous element was balanced.
 Rule 3: The one with the simplest formula (if there is one) should be balanced last; affixing any coefficient to it will not
affect the number of elements in the other formulas.
 Rule 4: The coefficients must be in whole numbers. If a fraction comes up, multiply the whole equation by the denominator
of this fraction.
 Rule 5: Express the coefficients in their lowest terms, if applicable.
Example 1: Balance the chemical equation for the production of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen gases.
Solution:
Rule 1: Start with the most complex formula in the equation, which is the NH 3. Adding the coefficient 2 on NH 3 makes the
number of N atoms 2 and H atoms 6 in the product side.
N2(g) + H2(g) → 2NH3(s)
2 N atoms : 2 N atoms 
2 H atoms : 6 H atoms
Rule 2: Next element to be balance is H on the reactants side, because the H on the product side has been affected when we
balanced N on the same side. To balance the H atoms, the coefficient 3 is written before H 2 so there are now 6 H atoms in
both sides.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(s)
6 H atoms : 6 H atoms 
Now, there are as many nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in both sides of the equation. Thus, the equation is already balanced.
Calculating the sum of the molar masses in each side of the equation will give equal result. This means that the equation now
satisfies the law of conservation of mass.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(s)
(14.01 amu × 2) + (1.008 amu × 6) : 2[(14.01 amu × 1) + (1.008 amu × 3)]
34.07 amu : 34.07 amu
16 | P a g e
Example 2: Rocket fuels commonly use the propellant dimethylhydrazine (C 2H8N2) and the oxidant dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2O4). The
reaction between these compounds produces nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water. Write and balance the equation for the reaction.
Solution:
The chemical reaction is represented below:
C2H8N2(g) + N2O4 (g) → N2(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
2 C atoms : 1 C atom
4 N atoms : 2 N atoms
4 O atoms : 3 O atoms
Rule 1 and 2: Start with the most complex formula in the equation, which is the C 2H8N2. From this, choose an element that
appears in only one formula in either the reactants or products side. In this case, balancing can start with either C or H. Notice
that there are two C atoms on the left and only one on the right. To balance C, a coefficient of 2 is written in CO 2 so that each
side will have two C atoms.
C2H8N2(g) + N2O4 (g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g) + H2O(g)
2 C atoms : 2 C atoms 
Next, there are eight H atoms on the left and only two on the right. Adding 4 to H2O will balance the number of H atoms.
C2H8N2(g) + N2O4 (g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
The products side now has a total of 8 atoms against 4 on the reactants side. To balance the O atoms, 2 is written N 2O4 so that
each side will have 8 O atoms each.
C2H8N2(g) + 2N2O4 (g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
8 O atoms : 8 O atoms 
Rule 3: The last element to be balanced is N, which is the simplest formula N 2. The coefficient 3 is written in N 2 to make the
two sides balanced.
C2H8N2(g) + 2N2O4 (g) → 3N2(g) + 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Since both sides of the equation have the same number of atoms of each element, the equation is now balanced.
MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A balanced chemical equation gives the identity of the reactants and the products as well as the accurate number of molecules or
moles of each that are consumed or produced. Stoichiometry is a collective term for the quantitative relationships between the
masses, the numbers of moles, and the numbers of particles (atoms, molecules, and ions) of the reactants and the products in a
balanced chemical equation. A stoichiometric quantity is the amount of product or reactant specified by the coefficients in a
balanced chemical equation.
Mass Relationships
Relating the mass of any substance A to the mass of another substance B in a reaction may be done in three steps as depicted in the
diagram.
17 | P a g e
Step 1: Convert the mass of the given substance A to the number of moles using its molar mass.
Step 2: Calculate the mole of the sought substance B from the mole of the given substance A using the mole ratio derived from the
coefficients of the involved substances in a balanced equation. Follow this:
A (Reactant 1) + B (Reactant 1) → P (Product)
# mol A : # mol B or vice versa
# mol A : # mol P or vice versa
# mol B : # mol P or vice versa
For instance, in the reaction

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
2 mol H2 : 1 mol O2
2 mol H2 : 2 mol H2O
1 mol O2 : 2 mol H2O
Step 3: Convert the mole of sought substance B to mass using its molar mass.
In short, in order to calculate the amount of reactant needed or amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass, we can simply
use the following equation:
 Given: A (Reactant 1) + B (Reactant 1) → P (Product)

Problem: A (mass/mole is unknown) + B (to react with) → P
If Mass/mole of A is unknown and B is given to react with, use the equation:
1 mol B ¿ of moles A molar mass A
Mass/mole of A=mass of B× × ×
molar mass B ¿ of moles B 1 mol A

Problem: A (to react with) + B (mass/mole is unknown) → P
If Mass/mole of B is unknown and A is given to react with, use the equation:
1 mol A ¿ of moles B molar mass B
Mass/mole of B=mass of A × × ×
molar mass A ¿ of moles A 1 mol B

Problem: A + B → P (mass/mole is unknown)
If Mass/mole of P is unknown, use the equation:
1 mol A ¿ of moles P molar mass P
Mass/mole of P=mass of A × × ×
molar mass A ¿ of moles A 1 mol P
or
1mol B ¿ of moles P molar mass P
Mass/mole of P=mass of B × × ×
molar mass B ¿ of moles B 1 mol P
 Given: A (Reactant 1) + B (Reactant 1) → P1 (Product 1) + P2 (Product 2)

Problem: A + B → P1 (mass/mole is unknown) + P2
If Mass/mole of P1 is unknown, use the equation:
1 mol A ¿ of moles P1 molar mass P1
Mass/ mole of P1=mass of A × × ×
molar mass A ¿ of moles A 1 mol P1
or
1 mol B ¿ of moles P1 molar mass P1
Mass/mole of P1=mass of B × × ×
molar mass B ¿ of moles B 1mol P1
 Given: A (Reactant 1) + B (Reactant 1) → P1 (Product 1) + P2 (Product 2)

Problem: A + B → P1 + P2 (mass/mole is unknown)
If Mass/mole of P1 is unknown, use the equation:
molar mass A moles A 1 mol P2
or
1 mol B ¿ of moles P2 molar mass P2
Mass/ mole of P2=mass of B × × ×
molar mass B moles B 1mol P 2
You can depend on these equations. Just

make sure of the quantities given and for
what you specifically looking for.
18 | P a g e
Example:
The combustion (meaning O2 is added) of the mineral pyrite (FeS2) produces another mineral hematite (Fe2O3) and sulfur dioxide
(SO2).
FeS2(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g)
(a) How many grams of O2 (MM = 32.0 g/mol) will completely react with 75.0 grams of FeS2 (MM = 119.85 g/mol)? **MM
means molar mass
(b) How many grams each of Fe2O3 (MM = 159.7 g/mol) and SO2 (MM = 64.0 g/mol) will be produced from the reaction of 75.0
grams of FeS2 with 55.1 grams of O2?
Solution:
Before calculating the mass or mole of a reactant or product, make sure that the given chemical equation is balance. So we will
balance first the chemical equation
FeS2(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g)
1 Fe atom : 2 Fe atoms
2 S atoms : 1 S atom
Rule 1: Start with the most complex formula in the equation, which is the FeS 2. Adding the coefficient 2 on FeS 2 makes the
number of Fe atoms 2 and S atoms 6 in the reactant side.
2FeS2(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g)
2 Fe atoms : 2 Fe atoms 
4 S atoms : 1 S atom
Rule 2: Next element to be balance is S on the product side, because the S on the reactant side has been affected when we
balanced Fe on the same side. To balance the S atoms, the coefficient 4 is written before SO 2 so there are now 4 S atoms in
both sides and 11 O atoms on the product side.
2FeS2(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) + 4SO2(g)
4 S atoms : 4 S atoms 
11
Rule 3: The last element to be balanced is O, which is the simplest formula O 2. The coefficient is written in O2 to make
2
the two sides balanced.
11
2FeS2(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) + 4SO2(g)
2
11
Rule 4: The coefficients must be in whole numbers. But the coefficient of O 2 is . In order to cancel out the fraction,
2
multiply the whole equation by the denominator of this fraction which is 2.
11
(2)2FeS2(s) + (2) O2(g) → (2)Fe2O3(s) + (2)4SO2(g)
2
4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Balanced Chemical Equation: 4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Now we are ready to solve for item (a) and (b).
(a) Given: FeS2 (substance A) O2 (substance B)

Mass of FeS2 = 75.0 g Mass of B = unknown
Molar mass of FeS2 = 119.85 g/mol Molar mass of O2 = 32.0 g/mol
# of moles of FeS2 = 4 mol # of moles of O2 = 11 mol
** for the # of moles (refer to the coefficient of the compound from the balanced chemical equation)
Solution: Since the structure of the problem is A (to react with) + B (mass/mole is unknown) → P, we will use the
equation:
19 | P a g e
1mol FeS 2 ¿ of moles O2 molar massO 2
Mass/mole of O2=mass of FeS 2 × × ×
molar mass FeS2 ¿ of moles FeS 2 1 mol O2
1mol FeS 2 11 mol O 2 32.0 g /mol O2
Mass/ mole of O 2=75.0 g FeS2 × × × =55.1 g
119.85 g/ mol FeS 2 4 mol FeS 2 1 mol O 2
(b) For Fe2O3
Given: FeS2 (substance A) Fe2O3 (substance P1)

Mass of FeS2 = 75.0 g Mass of Fe2O3 = unknown
Molar mass of FeS2 = 119.85 g/mol Molar mass of Fe2O3 = 159.7 g/mol
# of moles of FeS2 = 4 mol # of moles of Fe2O3 = 2 mol
Solution: Since the structure of the problem is A + B → P1 (mass/mole is unknown) + P2 we will use the equation:
molar mass A ¿ of moles A 1 mol P1
1 mol Fe S 2 ¿ of moles Fe 2 O 3 molar mass Fe2 O3
Mass/mole of Fe2 O3=mass of Fe S 2 × × ×
molar mass Fe S2 ¿ of moles Fe S2 1mol Fe 2 O 3
Mass 1 mol Fe S2 2 mol Fe2 O 3 159.7 g / mol Fe2 O 3
of Fe2 O 3 =75.0 g Fe S 2 × × × =50.0 g
mole 119.85 g/ mol Fe S2 4 mol Fe S2 1 mol Fe 2 O 3
For SO2
Given: FeS2 (substance A) SO2 (substance P2)

Mass of FeS2 = 75.0 g Mass of SO2 = unknown
Molar mass of FeS2 = 119.85 g/mol Molar mass of SO2 = 64.0 g/mol
# of moles of FeS2 = 4 mol # of moles of SO2 = 8 mol
Solution: Since the structure of the problem is A + B → P1 + P2 (mass/mole is unknown)we will use the equation:
Mass/mole of P2=mass of A × × ×
molar mass A moles A 1 mol P2
1 mol Fe 2 O 3 ¿ of moles S O2 molar mass S O 2
Mass/mole of S O 2=mass of Fe2 O3 × × ×
molar mass Fe2 O 3 moles Fe2 O3 1 mol S O2
Mass 1 mol Fe2 O3 8 mol S O2 64.0 g/mol S O2
of S O2=75.0 g Fe2 O3 × × × =80.1 g
mole 119.85 g/ mol Fe2 O3 4 mol Fe2 O3 1 mol S O2
Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
In the previous example above, the amount of Fe 2O3 (50.0 g) and SO2 (80.1 g) calculated from the given amount of FeS 2 is considered
as the theoretical yield of the reaction. Under ordinary laboratory conditions, however, this theoretical yield is not obtained because
several factors that affect the efficiency of the reaction. Oftentimes, the actual yield is less than the theoretical yield. The ratio (in
percent) between the actual yield and the theoretical yield is referred to as the percent yield given by
actual yield (¿ gams)
percent yield= ×100
theoretical yield (¿ grams)
Example:
From the sample above, suppose 41.3 grams of Fe2O3 was produced during an experiment. What is the percent yield of the reaction?
Given: Theoretical yield = 50.0 g (given from the previous example, 2(b))
Actual yield = 41.3 g
Solution:
Limiting and Excess Reagents
Limiting Reagent – The limiting

reagent in a chemical reaction is the
reactant that will be consumed
completely. Once there is no more of
that reactant, the reaction cannot
20 | P a g e
proceed. Therefor it limits the reaction from continuing.
Excess Reagent – The excess reagent is the reactant that could keep reacting if the other had not been consumed.
See picture for the analogy for limiting and excess reagents.
In determining which is the limiting and the excess reagent in a reaction, the following steps will be followed:
Step 1: Balance the given chemical equation. If already balanced, proceed to Step 2.
Step 2: Using the equations under mass relationships, calculate and examine the amount of reactants available for the
reaction and assume one substance as the limiting reagent.
Step 3: If the calculated amount of reactant is greater than the given amount, then the reactant is the excess reagent. If the
calculated amount of reactant is equal or smaller than the given amount, then the reactant is the limiting reagent.
Example:
Consider the production of phosphorus trichloride (PCl3) from Phosphorus (P4) and Chlorine (Cl2).
P4(s) + Cl2(g) → PCl3(l)
If 25.0 grams of P4 (MM = 123.88 g/mol) and 25.0 grams of Cl 2 (MM = 70.9 g/mol) are used in the reaction, which is the limiting and
the excess reagent?
Solution:
Follow the 3 steps:
Step 1: We will balance the given chemical equation because as you can see, the number of P and Cl both sides are not
equal.
P4(s) + Cl2(g) → PCl3(l)
4 P atoms : 1 P atom
2 Cl atoms : 3 Cl atoms
P4(s) + Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(l)

4 P atoms : 4 P atoms 
2 Cl atoms : 12 Cl atoms
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(l)

4 P atoms : 4 P atoms 
12 Cl atoms : 12 Cl atoms 
Balanced chemical equation: P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(l)
Step 2: Now, let’s calculate the amount of reactant needed.

 Let’s first assume that P4 (substance A) is the limiting reagent. So we will calculate the amount of Cl 2
(substance B) needed to react with 25.0 g of P4:
1mol P 4 ¿ of moles Cl2 molar mass Cl 2

Mass/mole of Cl 2=mass of P4 × × ×
molar mass P4 ¿ of moles P4 1 mol Cl2
g
70.9 Cl
1 mol P4 6 mol Cl 2 mol 2
Mass/mole of Cl 2=25.0 g P 4 × × × =85.8 g
g 1 mol P4 1mol Cl 2
123.88 P
mol 4
 Now, let’s assume that Cl2 (substance B) is the limiting reagent. So we will calculate the amount of P 4
(substance A) needed to react with 25.0 g of Cl2:
1 mol B ¿ of moles A molar mass A
Mass/mole of A=mass of B× × ×
molar mass B ¿ of moles B 1 mol A
1mol Cl 2 ¿ of moles P4 molar mass P4

Mass/mole of P4 =mass of Cl 2 × × ×
molar mass Cl2 ¿ of moles Cl2 1 mol P 4
g
123.88 P
1 mol Cl 2 1 mol P 4 mol 4
Mass/mole of P4 =25.0 g Cl2 × × × =7.3 g
g ¿ 6 mol Cl 2 1mol P 4
70.9 Cl
mol 2
Step 3: From the calculated amount of reactants needed, let’s decide now which among the substances is the limiting
reagent and the excess reagent.
21 | P a g e
 The calculated amount for P4 is 85.8 g which is greater than the given amount 25.0 g of P 4. Therefore, P4 is the
excess reagent.
 The calculated amount for Cl 2 is 7.3 g g which is smaller than the given amount 25.0 g of Cl 2. Therefore, Cl2 is
the limiting reagent.
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
LESSON 4
TOPIC: GASES
OVERVIEW: Gases are everywhere. You may have heard about the atmosphere. The atmosphere is an envelope of gases
that surrounds the Earth. In solids, atoms and molecules are compact and close together. Liquids have
atoms that are spread out a little more. The molecules in gases are really spread out, full of energy, and
constantly moving around in random ways.
1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure.
2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas under certain conditions of
change.
3. Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume, Temperature, or number of moles of a gas.
4. Use Dalton’s law of partial pressures to relate mole fraction and partial pressure of gases in a mixture.
LESSON CONTENT
DISCUSSION:
Gases are described as not having a definite shape and volume, in contrast to solids and liquids. They also have
much lower density compared to the other phases. Gas particles, being in a constant random motion, collide with one
another and with any surface they are contained in. The force produced when these particles collide with a surface
creates pressure, which along with temperature and volume, is an important property of gas.
GAS PRESSURE
Pressure is a force exerted by the

substance per unit area on another
substance. The pressure of a gas is the
force that the gas exerts on the walls of its
container. When you blow air into a
balloon, the balloon expands because the
pressure of air molecules is greater on the
inside of the balloon than the outside.
Pressure is a property which determines the
direction in which mass flows. If the
balloon is released, the air moves from a
region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure.
Pressure is commonly measured using a barometer or

a manometer.
 A barometer, left figure, (measures the

atmospheric pressure. It was invented in 1643 by
Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-
1647). The first barometer consisted of a basin
with a long tube filled with mercury.
 A manometer or pressure gauge, right figure,

measures the pressure in a closed system.
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The pressure of a gas is expressed in different units, among which are atmosphere (atm), torr, bar, and pascal (Pa). The equivalence of
the common units of pressure is given in the table below.
GAS LAWS
The different behaviors of gases influenced by changes in pressure (P), temperature (T), and volume (V) can be predicted by using the
different gas laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, Gay-Lussac’s Law and Avogadro’s Law.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law, formulated by the Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627-1691), is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a
gas (of a given mass, kept at a constant temperature) is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In other words, the
pressure (P) and volume (V) of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as long as the temperature and the quantity of gas
are kept constant.
This can be explained using the given figure. The pressure of a gas
increases when the volume it occupies is decreased without changing
the temperature of the gas.
This can be also expressed mathematically:

1
P∝
V
PV =constant
Where P is the pressure exerted by the gas and V is the volume
occupied by it.
For an amount of gas that undergoes expansion and compression, the equation is modified into:
P1 V 1=P2 V 2
Where,
 P1 is the initial pressure exerted by the gas
 V1 is the initial volume occupied by the gas
 P2 is the final pressure exerted by the gas
 V2 is the final volume occupied by the gas
Example: A 20.0 L gas kept in a movable piston has an initial pressure of 1.5 atm at 25°C. If the piston is allowed to expand at
constant temperature to 45.0 L, what will the resulting pressure of the gas?
Given: V1 = 20.0 L V2 = 45.0 L
P1 = 1.5 atm P2 = ?
Solution:
P1 V 1=P2 V 2
( 1.5 atm ) ( 20.0 L ) =P2 ( 45.0 L )
30 atm ∙ L=P2 ( 45.0 L )
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30 atm∙ L P 2 ( 45.0 L )
=
45.0 L 45.0 L
0.67 atm=P2
P2=0.67 atm
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s law is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass and kept at a constant volume)
varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas. In other words, the pressure (P) exerted by a gas is proportional to the
temperature (T) of the gas when the mass is fixed and the volume is constant. This law was formulated by the French chemist
Joseph Gay-Lussac in the year 1808.
This can be explained using the given figure. The pressure of a gas
increases when the temperature is increased without changing the
volume of the gas.

P ∝T
P
=constant
T
Where P is the pressure exerted by the gas and T is the temperature
expressed in Kelvin (K).
For a gas sample at different initial and final conditions, the equation is converted into:
P 1 P2
=
T1 T 2
Where,
 P1 is the initial pressure
 T1 is the initial temperature (in Kelvin)
 P2 is the final pressure
 T2 is the final temperature (in Kelvin)
Example: A 50.0 L tank of helium gas placed outside a laboratory has a pressure of 5.0 atm at 25°C. How much will the
pressure increase at noontime when the temperature reaches 32°C?
Given: P1 = 5.0 atm P2 = ?

T1 = 25°C = 298.15 K T2 = 32°C = 305.15
Convert 25°C to K: Convert 32°C to K:
K = °C + 273.15 K = °C + 273.15
K = 25 + 273.15 K = 32 + 273.15
K = 298.15 K = 305.15
Solution:
P 1 P2
=
T1 T 2
5.0 atm P2
=
298.15 K 305.15 K
( 5.0 atm ) ( 305.15 K )=P2 ( 298.15 K )
1525.75 atm ∙ K =P2 ( 298.15 K )
1525.75 atm∙ K P 2 ( 298.15 K )

=
298.15 K 298.15 K
5.12 atm=P2
P2=5.12 atm
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The increase in pressure is P2 – P1 = 5.12 atm – 5.0 atm = 0.1 atm.
Charle’s Law
Charles’s law was discovered in the 1700s by a French physicist named Jacques Charles. According to Charles’s law, if the gas
pressure is constant, increasing the temperature of the gas increases its volume. What happens when a gas is heated? Its
particles gain energy. With more energy, the particles have a greater speed. Therefore, they can move more and spread out farther.
The volume of the gas increases as it expands and takes up more space.
This can be explained using the given figure. The volume of a gas
increases when the temperature is increased without changing the
pressure of the gas.

V ∝T
V
=constant
T
Where V is the volume of the gas and T is the temperature
expressed in Kelvin (K).
For a gas sample at different conditions, the equation is modified into:

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Where,
 V1 is the initial volume
 T1 is the initial temperature (in Kelvin)
 V2 is the final volume
 T2 is the final temperature (in Kelvin)
Example: Consider a 25.0 L gas in a container initially at 25°C and 1 atm. If this gas is heated to 80°C, what will happen to its
volume under constant pressure?
Given: V1 = 25.0 L V2 = ?
T1 = 25°C = 298.15 K T2 = 80°C = 353.15
Convert 25°C to K: Convert 80°C to K:
K = °C + 273.15 K = °C + 273.15
K = 25 + 273.15 K = 80 + 273.15
K = 298.15 K = 353.15
Solution:
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
25.0 L V2
=
298.15 K 353.15 K
( 25.0 L )( 353.15 K )=V 2 ( 298.15 K )
8828.75 L∙ K=V 2 ( 298.15 K )
8828.75 L ∙ K V 2 ( 298.15 K )
=
298.15 K 298.15 K
29.61 L=V 2
V 2=29.61 L
Avogadro’s Law
Amadeo Avogadro was an Italian physicist who stated, in 1811, that the volume of any gas is proportional to the number of
molecules of gas (measured in moles – symbol mol) at the same pressure and absolute temperature, regardless of the nature of the
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gas. In other words if the amount of gas increases, then so does its volume.
This can be explained using the given figure. The volume of a gas
increases when the number of gas molecules is increased.

V ∝n
V
=constant
n
Where V is the volume of the gas and n is the number of gas
molecules expressed in mole (mol).
To predict the initial or final conditions based on the direct relationship between number of particles (expressed in mole) and
volume, this mathematical statement of the Avogadro’s law is used:
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
Where,
 V1 is the initial volume
 n1 is the initial number of particles (in mol)
 V2 is the final volume
 n2 is the final number of particles (in mol)
Example: If 0.25 mol of argon gas occupies a volume of 7.62 mL at a particular temperature and pressure, what volume would
0.43 mol of argon have under the same conditions?
Given: n1 = 0.25 mol n2 = 0.43 mol
V1 = 7.62 mL V2 = ?
Solution:
V1 V2
=
n 1 n2
7.62 mL V2
=
0.25 mol 0.43 mol
( 7.62 mL ) ( 0.43 mol ) =V 2 ( 0.25 mol )
3.2766 mL ∙ mol=V 2 ( 0.25 mol )
3.2766 mL ∙ mol V 2 ( 0.25 mol )

=
0.25 mol 0.25 mol
13.1 mL=V 2
V 2=13.1 mL
Combined Gas Law: Boyle, Charles, and Gay-Lussac
The gas laws of Boyle, Charles, and Gay-lussac can be combined into a single equation to examine the behavior of a constant
amount of gas when the three gas conditions are changed. Known as the combined gas law, this law is expressed in equation as:
P1V 1 P2V 2
= =constant
T1 T2
Example: A gas sample held in a 1.0 L piston at 305 K has a pressure of 0.75 atm. The piston was heated to 397 K at the same
time the volume was expanded to 1.5 L. Will the pressure decrease or increase?
Given: P1 = 0.75 atm P2 = ?

V1 = 1.0 L V2 = 1.5 L
T1 = 305 K T2 = 397 K
Solution:
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P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
( 0.75 atm ) (1.0 L ) P 2 ( 1.5 L )
=
305 K 397 K
( 0.75 atm ) ( 1.0 L )( 397 K )=P 2 ( 1.5 L )( 305 K )
297.75 atm ∙ L ∙ K =P2 ( 457.5 L∙ K )
297.75 atm∙ L∙ K P2 ( 457.5 L ∙ K )

=
457.5 L ∙ K 457.5 L∙ K
0.65 atm=P2
P2=0.65 atm
The pressure of the gas sample decreases, from 0.75 atm to 0.65 atm.
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are no
intermolecular attractive forces. One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise do not
interact with each other. In such a gas, all the internal energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any change in internal energy is
accompanied by a change in temperature.
An ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The
relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory and mathematically stated as:
PV =nRT
Where:
 P – pressure
 V – volume in liters (L)
 n – the number of gaseous substance in mole (mol)
 R – gas constant = 0.0821 Latm/molK
 T – temperature in Kelvin (K)
Example: You fill a rigid metal container with a volume of 20.0 L with nitrogen gas to a pressure of 197 atm at 28.0 °C. How
many moles of gas are present in the container?
Given: V = 20.0 L
P = 197 atm
T = 28.0°C = 301.15 K
n=?
Convert 28°C to K:
K = °C + 273.15
K = 28 + 273.15
K = 301.15
Solution:
PV =nRT
(
( 197 atm ) ( 20.0 L )=n 0.0821
L ∙ atm
mol ∙ K )
( 301.15 K )
3940 atm ∙ L=n 24.72( L ∙ atm

mol )
3940 atm ∙ L
=
(
L ∙ atm
n 24.72
mol )
L∙ atm L ∙ atm
24.72 24.72
mol mol
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159.39 mol=n
n=159.39 mol
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
John Dalton established the Law on Partial Pressures,

which states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases
in a container is equal to the sum of the partial pressures
of the individual gases. This law is expressed in an
equation as:
PT =P1+ P 2+ P3 + ⋯+ Pn
Where PT is the total pressure of the mixture and P1, P2,
P3, … , Pn are the partial pressure of all the n
components in the gaseous mixture.
Partial Pressure refers to the pressure that would be

exerted by a gas in the mixture if it was the only gas
present in the container.
The partial pressure of a gas (P i) is proportional to the fraction of its number of particles in the mixture expressed in moles. The mole
fraction of a gas (xi) is calculated as the number of moles of that gas divided by the total number of moles of all the gases in the
mixture. In equation:
Pi=x i P T
Where:
 Pi – partial pressure
 xi – mole fraction
 PT – total pressure
Note that the sum of the mole fractions of all the components of a mixture is always equal to 1.
x A + x B + ⋯+ x n=1
Example: A mixture of N2 and H2 gases to be used for ammonia production exerts a pressure of 2.5 atm. If the mole fraction of
N2 in the mixture is 0.67, what are the individual pressures exerted by each gas in the meixture?
Given: PT = 2.5 atm

x N 2 = 0.67
PN = ?
2
PH = ?
2
Solution:
For P N 2:
Pi=x i P T
P N =x N PT =( 0.67 )( 2.5 atm ) =1.7 atm
2 2
For P H2 :
We need to solve first the mole fraction of H2 ( x H 2). Take note that:
x N + x H =1
2 2
0.67+ x H =1 2
x H =1−0.67
2
x H =0.33
2
Now, we are ready to solve for the partial pressure of H2 ( P N 2):

Pi=x i P T
P H =x H PT =( 0.33 )( 2.5 atm ) =0.8 atm
2 2
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To check if the results are valid, we will add the partial pressure of the gases; the sum should be equal to 2.5 atm.
PT =PN + P H =1.7 atm+ 0.8 atm=2.5 atm
2 2
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
LESSON 1 ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS
PRE-ASSESSMENT: Identify if each of the following statements is true or false. Write True is the statement Is correct, False if
it is incorrect.
1. Air is a mixture.
2. Gold is a pure substance.
3. Water from a lake is a pure substance.
4. A homogeneous mixture contains particles that are all alike.
5. Two different gases can make up a compound.
Properties of Matter
Classify the following examples as Physical (Intensive or Extensive) Properties or Chemical Properties by writing it on the
table.
Reactivity Color Size Volume Luster

Mass Acidity Toxicity Opacity Weight
Temperature Flammability Malleability Length Entropy
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Intensive Extensive
Elements and Compound

Complete the table below. You can search on the internet and books for your answers. Refer to the given example.
29 | P a g e
Common Name Chemical Name Formula Elements
Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl Sodium and Chloride
Sugar
Vinegar
Baking Soda
Honey
Chalk
Critical Thinking
Answer the following questions. Use the back of this page for your answers. 5 points each.
1. Combining lemon juice and water produces lemonade. To make the lemonade taste better, one could add some sugar. Is
lemonade-sugar combination classified as a compound or a mixture? Explain your answer.
2. Does cooking egg involve physical or chemical change? Why do you say so?
3. How can you tell the difference between an element and a compound?
You have completed this lesson. You can now proceed to the next lesson.
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
PRE-ASSESSMENT: Read each item carefully. Write the letter of your answer on the line provided before each item number.
1. Which of the following serves as the identity of an element?

A. atomic number C. number of electrons
B. mass number D. number of neutrons
64
2. Which of the following is NOT true about the isotopic symbol29Cu ?
A. The isotope has 29 protons C. The isotope has 35 electrons
B. The isotope has 35 neutrons D. The isotope has a mass number of 64
3. Which of the following is the chlorate ion?
A. ClO- B. ClO2- C. ClO3- D. ClO4-
4. Which of the following best describes NaHCO3?
A. Monosodium Bicarbonite C. Monosodium Hydrogen Carbonate
B. Sodium Bicarbonate D. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonite
5. Which pair of elements can form an ionic compound?
A. Carbon and Oxygen C. Magnesium and Chlorine
B. Lithium and Sodium D. Sulfur and Bromine
Finding the Element

Complete the table based on the information provided. Refer to the given periodic table of elements. An example has already
provided.
Atomic No. of No. of Mass Isotopic

Period Group Name of Element
Number Protons Neutrons Number Symbol
108
47 47 61 108 5 11 47 Ag Silver
79 197
97 150
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169 278
93
5 41 Nb
157 Mendelevium
What’s in a Name?
Identify if the given name/formula is an Ionic Compound or Covalent Compound and write the chemical name of a
compound given its formula, and vice versa.
A. Write the chemical formula of the following compounds and identify if it is ionic or covalent compound.
Chemical Formula Ionic or Covalent?
1. Sodium Bromide
2. Potassium Chromate
3. Antimony(V) Sulfide
4. Dichlorine Heptoxide
5. Ammonium Phosphate
B. Write the name of the following compounds and identify if it is ionic or covalent compound.
Chemical Name Ionic or Covalent?
1. N2H4
2. HClO4
3. Ca3(PO4)2
4. LiF
5. Mg(HSO4)2
The Ionic One

Find the compound formed by the following metal and nonmetal elements. Follow the steps given.
1. Tin and Sulfur
 Ions
 Crisscross Method
 Ionic Compound
 Chemical Name
2. Sodium and Chromate
31 | P a g e
 Ions
 Crisscross Method
 Ionic Compound
 Chemical Name
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
PRE-ASSESSMENT:
A. Read each item carefully. Write the letter of your answer on the line provided before each item number.
1. Which of the following elements has an average atomic mass of 55.85 amu?
A. Co B. Fe C. Mn D. Ni
2. One amu is equal to .
A. 6.626 × 10-34 g C. 1.602 × 10-19 g
B. 1.661 × 10 g
-24
D. 6.022 × 1023 g
3. How many carbon atoms are there in 25 molecules of naphthalene (C10H8)?
A. 1 B. 10 C. 25 D. 250
4. What is the molar mass of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)?
A. 31.02 g/mol C. 80.05 g/mol
B. 66.04 g/mol D. 150.01 g/mol
5. When the equation below is balanced, what is the ratio of Fe to H2?
A. 1 : 4 B. 3 : 1 C. 3 : 4 D. 4 : 4
B. Identify what is being described. Write your answer on the line provided before each item number.
1. It is the weighted average of the atomic masses of known stable isotopes of an element based on percent
isotopic abundances.
2. It is a collective term for the quantitative relationships between the masses, the numbers of moles, and
the numbers of particles of the reactants and the products in a balanced chemical equation.
3. It is phrased as the number of each element in both sides of the equation should be equal.
4. It is the reactant that will be consumed completely.
5. It is the reactant that could keep reacting if the other had not been consumed.
Problem Solving
Answer the following items. Write your solutions and answers on a separate sheet of paper.
32 | P a g e
1. An unknown element (X) is found to have three isotopes (X-174, X-175, and X-177). As a chemist, you are tasked to calculate
the average atomic mass of the element.
Isotope Isotopic Mass (amu) Percent Abundance
X-174 174.1874 24.36%
X-175 174.8439 62.86%
X-177 176.7521 12.78%
2. Acetylsalicylic acid (C9H8O4) is an active component of aspirin tablets, which are commonly used as pain reliever.
(a) What is the molar mass of C9H8O4?
(b) What is the percentage of each element in the compound C9H8O4?
3. An organic compound was found to contain 54.5% C, 9.2% H, and 36.3% O.

(a) What is the empirical formula of the compound?
(b) If the molar mass of the compound is 88.1 g/mol, what is its molecular formula?
4. Balance the following chemical equation:

(a) P4O10 + H2O → H3PO4
(b) CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
(c) SiCl4 + H2O → H4SiO4 + HCl
(d) Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2
(e) Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2
5. The neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH 2)] produces calcium chloride (CaCl2)
and water.
HCl(aq) + Ca(OH2)(s) → H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)
If 0.75 grams of Ca(OH2) is used in the reaction, determine the following:
(a) Balance the given equation.
(b) Number of moles of HCl (MM = 36.46 g/mol) needed to completely react with Ca(OH2). The molar mass of Ca(OH2) is
74.10 g/mol.
(c) Mass of CaCl2 (MM = 110.98 g/mol) formed in the reaction.
6. Phosphorus acid (H3PO3) can be prepared from phosphorus triiodide (PI3) according to the reaction:
PI3(s) + H2O(l) → H3PO3(aq) + HI(g)
(a) Balance the equation.
(b) If 150 grams of PI3 (MM = 411.7 g/mol) is added to 250 milliliters of H2O (MM = 18.01 g/mol), identify the limiting and
excess reagents.
33 | P a g e
NAME
GRADE & SECTION
PRE-ASSESSMENT:
A. Read each item carefully. Write the letter of your answer on the line provided before each item number.
1. Which of the following is NOT a unit of pressure?

A. atmosphere B. newton C. pascal D. torr
2. Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a gas increases when the volume it occupies decreases at constant pressure. Which
correctly represents this law?
P 1 P2 P1V 1 P2V 2
A. P1 + P2=V 1 +V 2 B. = C. P 1 V 1=P 2 V 2 D. =
V1 V2 T1 T2
3. Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant volume.
Which correctly represents this law?
P 1 P2 P1V 1 P2V 2
A. P1 T 1=P2 T 2 B. = C. P1 + P2=T 1+T 2 D. =
T1 T 2 T1 T2
4. According to Boyle’s law, what will happen to the volume of a gas if its pressure decreases by half while keeping the
temperature constant?
A. It will be doubled. C. It will increase four times.
B. It will decrease by half. D. It will decrease by one-fourth.
5. As predicted by Charle’s law, what will happen to the volume of a gas as it is heated if the pressure is to be kept constant?
A. It will increase. C. It will not be affected.
B. It will decrease. D. It cannot be determined.
B. Identify what is in the blank. Write your answer on the line provided before each item number.
1. The is an envelope of gases that surrounds the Earth.

2. The volume of any gas is to the number of molecules of gas at the same pressure and absolute
temperature, regardless of the nature of the gas.
3. The pressure exerted by a gas is proportional to the temperature of the gas when the mass is fixed and the is
constant.
4. The collisions between atoms or molecules of an ideal gas are and in which there are no
intermolecular attractive forces.
34 | P a g e
5. The Law on Partial Pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases in a container is equal to the sum of the
of the individual gases.
Problem Solving
Answer the following items. Write your solutions and answers on a separate sheet of paper. Note: Use the formula K = °C +
273.15 in converting Celsius to Kelvin.
1. Convert 2.5 bar to the following:

(a) Pascal
(b) Atmosphere
(c) Torr
** refer to the table of conversion on page 23
2. An air compressor contains 11.5 L of gas at 1.10 atm. If the pressure inside the compressor has to be increased to 4.3 atm
without changing its temperature, what should be the final volume setting?
3. A confined amount of gas at 10°C has a pressure of 2.5 atm. What is its new pressure if the temperature is increased to
50°C?
4. The volume of a gas is 250 mL at 720 torr and 25°C. If the pressure is held constant and the temperature is raised to 100°C,
what will be its new volume?
5. A sample of gas occupies 2.00 L with 5.00 moles present. What would happen to the volume if the number of moles is
increased to 10.0?
6. At what temperature would 2.10 moles of N2 gas have a pressure of 1.25 atm and in a 25.0 L tank?
7. A 20 L container is filled with helium and the pressure is 150 atm and the temperature is 30°C. What is the pressure if the
container was filled by 2940 L when the temperature is 22°C?
8. A mixture of hydrogen (H) gas and oxygen (O) gas exerts a total pressure of 1.5 atm on the walls of its container. If the
partial pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm, find the following:
(a) Mole fraction of hydrogen.
(b) Mole fraction of oxygen.
(c) Partial pressure of oxygen in the mixture.
35 | P a g e
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
PERFORMANCE TASK
Midterm (First Quarter)
GOAL: To educate the students about the nature of matter.
ROLE: The student acts as a Multimedia Artist.
AUDIENCE: The audience will be the subject teacher
SITUATION: The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) will be conducting the National Science and Technology Week
2021 (NSTW) and as part of this celebration, the DOST is encouraging the entire Multimedia artist nationwide to
disseminate information about the nature of matter with the aid of technology (multimedia).
PRODUCT: Trifold Brochure (PRINTED) representing or showing any of the following (choose only 1 topic):
A. Atomic structure
B. Gas behavior
C. Mass relationships
D. Reactions
STANDARD AND CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS: Your output will be rated using the rubric below:
CATEGORY 10 – 9 pts. 8 – 7 pts. 6 – 5 pts. 4 – 3 pts. 2 – 1 pts.
The brochure has

The brochure has
exceptionally The brochure has The brochure's has The brochure has
attractive
Attractiveness & attractive some formatting limited formatting no formatting and
formatting and
Organization formatting and and organized of and organization of organization of
well-organized
well-organized information. information. material.
information.
information.
Use of facts and the Use of facts and Use of facts and Use of facts and Use of facts and
Content -
quantity of quantity of quantity of quantity of quantity of
Accuracy/
information is information is very information is good information is information is
Quantity
exceptional. good. but not consistent. present but limited. limited.
36 | P a g e
Brochure has Brochure has

Writing - Brochure has very Brochure has good Brochure has no
exceptional limited
Organization good organization. organization. organization.
organization organization.
Grammatical
There are no There are very few There are some There are several mistakes are so
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GEN CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE (Midterm)

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GEN CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE (Midterm)

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Santa Lucia Catholic School, Inc.

MODULE IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY I

TOPIC: THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS

Example: We use water as the substance.

 Melting – by adding heat, ice turns to liquid water.

All matter has physical and chemical properties.

Pure Substances and Mixtures in Consumer Products

Household Cleaning Materials

Personal Care Products

Distillation is the separation of one

Suppose we want to separate the

First, as shown in the left hand side panel, I ran a thin

Let’s visualize a simple experiment to exemplify the power

1. Take a few leaves and crush them in a mortar.

TOPIC: COMPOUNDS: WHEN ATOMS COMBINE

Inside the Atom

An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An atom

Electrons (e-) – negatively charged atom

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Mass Number – indicates the total number of protons and neutrons.

Another way of representing isotopes is by writing the element name or

Some uses of isotopes

Valence Electrons – are the electrons in the outer shell of an

The main group number for an element

Most transition metals have 2 valence

2. Chlorine (Cl), a nonmetal, gains 1 electron (because it has 7 valence electron,

4. Sulfur (S), a nonmetal, gains 2 electrons (because it has 6

Monatomic Ions: Na+, Mg2+, Fe3+, S2-, Cl-

 Metals with More Than One Ion

In the stock method, A Roman numeral indicating the

In the classical method, the ion with the lower charge

 Common Polyatomic Ions

Study the following common polyatomic ions on the given figure.

Ternary polyatomic ions (consisting of

If there is only one type of ternary ion

Example 1: Hydrogen + Carbonate

Example 2: Hydrogen + Phosphate

If there are several types of ions formed

Example 2: 2 Hydrogen + Phospite

Steps in Forming Ionic Compound:

Combining a Metal and a Nonmetal Element

Example: Find the compound formed by combining Copper and Oxygen.

Step 4: Cu2+ + O2- → CuO

Final Answer: Cu2+ + O2- → CuO (Copper(II) Oxide or Cupric Oxide)

Combining a Metal Element and a Binary Ion

Example: Find the compound formed by combining Lead and Nitrate.

Step 4: Pb2+ + NO3-- → Pb(NO3)2

Final Answer: Pb2+ + NO3-- → Pb(NO3)2 (Lead(II) Nitrate or Plumbous Nitrate)

II. Write the compound given its chemical name.

TOPIC: ATOMS IN REACTIONS

Mass of 1 atom of C-12 = 12.00 amu = 1.992657 ✕10-23 g

Given: Atomic masses:Na = 22.99 amu, P = 30.97 amu, O = 16.00 amu

Solution: formula mass of Na3PO4 = (atomic mass of Na ✕ 3) + (atomic mass of P ✕ 1) +

2. Calculate the molar mass of carbon dioxide?

Given: Atomic masses:C = 12.01 amu, O = 16.00 amu

Solution: formula mass of CO2 = (atomic mass of C ✕ 1) + (atomic mass of O ✕ 2

Answer: The molar mass of CO2 is 44.01 g/mol.

PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM THE MOLECULAR FORMULA

( atomic mass of A ) × ( number of atoms of A ∈thecompound )

MOLECULAR FORMULA FROM PERCENT COMPOSITION

mole of element=( mass of element ∈compound ) × ( molar mass1molof element )

mole of O=53.29 g × ( 16.00

C 3.33 H 6.66 O3.33 → C H O