What Holds
Solids and
Liquids?
Lesson 1: Week 1 and 2
Lesson 1
Intermolecular
Kinetic 02 Forces
Molecular 01
Forces Model of
Solids and Types and
Liquids
Topics:
04 Properties of
Solids
Intermolecular
Forces and 03
Properties of Phase Changes
Liquids 05 and Phase
Diagrams
01 Kinetic Molecular Theory
The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model
used to explain the behavior of matter. It is based
on a series of postulates.
Matter is made of particles that are constantly
in motion. This energy in motion is called
kinetic energy.
The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is
related to its temperature.
There is space between particles. The amount of
space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.
01 Kinetic Molecular Theory
Phase changes happen when the temperature of
the substance changes sufficiently.
There are attractive forces in between
particles called intermolecular forces. The
strength of these forces increases as
particles get closer together.
01 Kinetic Molecular Theory
on Solids
SOLIDS have definite volume and shape. They are
denser than liquids and are not easily
compressed because their particles are tightly
packed. The intermolecular attractive forces
between their particles are stronger than those
in liquids, enough to keep the solids rigid.
01 Kinetic Molecular Theory
on Liquids
LIQUIDS have definite volume but no definite
shape. Instead, they just take the shape of the
container. Liquids are also denser than gases.
Their particles are held close together by
strong intermolecular forces, but not strong
enough to keep them in a rigid position. The
particles are then free to slide over one
another. This particles behavior makes liquids
flow and assume the shape of their containers.
02 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or
repulsion which act between neighboring particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions). These forces are weak compared to the
intramolecular forces, such as the covalent or ionic bonds
between atoms in a molecule.
Dipole-dipole forces exist
between polar molecules. Each
polar molecule has unequal
Dipole-Dipole electron densities, resulting in
a dipole – a partial positive (𝛿+)
end and a partial negative (𝛿−)
end. Thus, when two polar
molecules are brought close
together, the partial positive
charge of one molecule will be
attracted to the partial
negative charge of the
neighboring molecule.
Hydrogen bond is the
Hydrogen Bonds
electromagnetic attraction
created between a partially
positively charged hydrogen
atom attached to a highly
electronegative atom and
another nearby
electronegative atom
(nitrogen, fluorine, or oxygen).
A hydrogen bond is a type of
dipole-dipole interaction.
Highly negative Partially positive
Ion-Dipole
Ion-dipole forces acts between an ion and a polar molecule. The degree of
ion-dipole interaction depends on the size and charge of the ion and on
the size and dipole moment of the polar molecule. Cations (positively
charged ions) interact more strongly with dipoles than anions
(negatively charged ions) of the same magnitude of charge since they
are smaller.
Cl- has less Na+ has high
interactions interactions
with water. with water.
Ion-dipole Ion-dipole
attraction is attraction is
not so strong.
strong.
London The London dispersion force
Dispersion is the weakest
intermolecular force. It is
a temporary attractive
force that results when the
electrons in two adjacent
atoms occupy positions
that make the atoms form
temporary dipoles.
London
Dispersion
Because of the constant motion of the electrons, an atom or
molecule can develop a temporary (instantaneous) dipole
when its electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about
the nucleus.
London
Dispersion
A second atom or molecule, in turn, can be distorted by the
appearance of the dipole in the first atom or molecule
(because electrons repel one another) which leads to an
electrostatic attraction between the two atoms or
molecules.
03 General Properties of Liquids
1 3 Vapor
Surface Tension Pressure
2 4 Boiling
Viscosity Point
5 Heat of
Vaporization
Surface Tension is the property of a
liquid to resist an external force and
1 thus assume a lesser surface area.
Surface Tension
This is attributed to the strong
attractive and cohesive forces between
and among the molecules, particularly
at the surface of the liquid.
The strong cohesive force explains why
spherical water droplets form on leaves.
2
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow. It is loosely referred
to as the thickness and thinness of a liquid.
A glassful of water is relatively faster to pour than a glassful of
oil or honey. Thus, water is described as less viscous or thinner
than oil and honey.
The greater the intermolecular forces (long-chained substances ),
the more viscous the substance.
The vapor pressure of a substance is
the pressure exerted by its vapor
3 when in equilibrium with its liquid or
Vapor Pressure solid. This means that when a liquid
or a solid substance is made to
evaporate in a closed container, the
gas exerts a pressure above the
liquid.
Substance’s with relatively strong
intermolecular forces will have low
Water Ethyl Ether vapor pressure because the
(Hydrogen Bonding) (London Dispersion)
particles will have a difficulty
escaping as a gas.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
4 at which its vapor pressure is equal to the
Boiling Point external or atmospheric pressure. Increasing
the temperature of a liquid raises the kinetic
energy of its molecules until such point
where the energy of the particle movement
exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold
them together.
The boiling point of a liquid is influenced by
the strength of its intermolecular forces. The
greater the attractive forces, the higher the
energy needed to increase the kinetic energy
of the molecules to break these forces.
Heat of 5 Molar heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) is the
Vaporization amount of heat required to vaporize one
mole of a substance at its boiling point.
The application of heat disrupts the
intermolecular forces of attraction of
the liquid molecules and allows them to
vaporize. Boiling point generally
increases as molar heat of vaporization
increases. The ∆Hvap is also determined by
the strength of the intermolecular forces
between molecules.
Heat of 5
Vaporization
Table 2
Molar Heat of Vaporization for Some Liquids
Boiling Point
Substance ∆𝐇𝐯𝐚𝐩 (kJ/mol)
(°C)
Argon (Ar) –186.0 6.3
Methane (CH4) –164.0 9.2
Diethyl ether
34.6 26.0
(C2H5OC2H5)
Ethanol
78.3 39.3
(C2H5OH)
Water (H2O) 100.0 40.8
04 Types and Properties of Solids
Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the
arrangement of their particles.
Crystalline solids have a highly Amorphous solids have considerable
regular arrangement of particles. disorder in their structure
Crystalline Solid
A crystalline solid has a well-defined
crystal lattice.
A lattice is a three-dimensional system
of points designating the positions of
the components (atoms, ions, or
molecules) that make up a crystal.
A unit cell is the smallest repeating
unit of a lattice.
The seven common unit cells and their lattices:
Cubic (Isometric) Hexagonal
Cubic
Monoclinic Rhombohedral
(Isometric)
Orthorhombic Tetragonal
Amorphous Solid
Amorphous solids, such as glass and
rubber, are formed rather rapidly that
its constituent particles do not have
time to align or organize into a more
definite crystalline lattice.
Many amorphous polymers, including
polycarbonate and polymethacrylate,
are tough enough to be used as armor
polymers.
Phase Change When the heat
Phase changes occur with increased temperature. supplied exceeds
the intermolecular
The particles of a When heat is forces that hold the
solid are held close supplied to solid particles, they
together by the solid, the start to become
intermolecular increased “loose” from the
forces of attraction. kinetic solid lattice and
Because the energy melt, decreasing
particles are so close intensifies their molecular
together, they tend the vibration order, which allows
to vibrate in a fixed of the the particles to slide
point. particles. past each other.
Phase Change
Further increased in heat supplied can overcome the intermolecular forces between
liquid particles, causing them to begin moving independently and colliding with
other particles, forming a gas vapor. Most solids undergo this two-step process
before they become gas.
Phase Change
There are certain solids, however, that go directly from being solid to vapor and
do not melt upon gaining sufficient energy. These solids are described to undergo
a process called sublimation. An example of a solid that sublimes is dry ice, the
solid form of CO2.
Phase Diagram
Each substance has specific conditions at which their phase
changes occur. These conditions may be obtained from phase
diagrams. Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the
pressure-temperature relationships that apply to the equilibria
between the phases of a substance. It is useful in determining the
combination of temperature and pressure at which a substance
will exist as solid, liquid, or gas, or the conditions at which two
phases exist in equilibrium. Two commonly studied phases are
those of water and carbon dioxide.
Phase Diagram of Water
Phase Diagram of CO2
Critical Point -
Phase Diagram of Water At a temperature
of 374 °C and a
pressure of 22,089
Freezing Point - At kPa, this is the
a temperature of 0 point where there
°C and a pressure of is equilibrium
101 kPa, this is the between the liquid
point at which water and gas phases.
(liquid) freezes into
ice (a solid).
Boiling Point - At a
temperature of
Triple Point - At a
100.0 °C and a
temperature of 0.01
pressure of 101 kPa,
°C and a pressure of
this is the point at
0.60 kPa, this is the
which water (liquid)
point where liquid,
boils, turning it into
gas, and solids exist
a water vapor (gas).
in equilibrium.
Phase Diagram of CO2
Sublimation Point -
At a temperature of
–78.5 °C and a
pressure of 101 kPa,
solid CO2 is in
equilibrium with the
gas. As solid CO2
warms above this
temperature, it
sublimes rather
than melts; hence,
the term “dry ice” is
used for gaseous
CO2.
Phase Diagram of CO2
Triple Point - At a
temperature of –56.6 °C
and a pressure of 517.8
kPa, CO2 cannot be
liquid at pressures less
than 517.8 kPa. From the
phase diagram, CO2 can
be converted to a liquid
at 20–25° C by applying
moderate pressure on
the gas. This is how CO2
is regularly shipped to
industrial companies
and laboratory.
Phase Diagram of CO2
Critical Point - At a
temperature of 31 °C and a
pressure of 7396.7 kPa, this is
the point where distinct liquid
and vapor phases are no longer
evident. This homogeneous
phase is called supercritical
CO2. A supercritical fluid is a
substance that has a
temperature above its critical
temperature and a density near
its liquid density.
End of Presentation
