CHEMISTRY
Chemistry - study of matter and the changes it
undergoes.
- study of the composition of matter and its
transformation.
Matter - anything that occupies space and has
mass. Everything we see, use and touch are forms
of matter.
Solid - particles are tightly and close packed.
- has fixed shape and volume.
- Force of attraction between particles are
adamant.
- The rate of diffusion is very low.
Liquid - particles are less tightly packed.
- has fixed volume but no fixed shape.
- The rate of diffusion is higher than solid.
- Force of attraction between the particles are
weaker than solid.
Gas - far apart from each other.
- Force of attraction between particles are
negligible, and can move freely.
- Neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape.
- gaseous state has the highest compressibility
than both solid & liquid.
- Rate of diffusion is higher than solid & liquid.
- Kinetic energy of particles is higher than solid
and liquid.
Plasma - not a state of matter.
- consist of particles with extremely high kinetic
energy.
- superheated forms of plasma are what stars are.
Bose - Einstein Condensate
- 1995, with the help of advancement in
technology
- Carl Weiman & Eric Cornell cooled a sample of
rubidium with the help of magnets and lasers.
- BEC, properties of superfluid which implies that it
flows without fiction.
Properties of Matter: Physical and Chemical
Property
Chemical Property - when new substance is
produced. There is a change in composition of
matter.
Toxicity - ability of a substance to cause harmful.
health effects. (poisonous)
- result of the chemical changes is the toxicity.
Flammability - measure of how quickly a specific
material is capable of catching fire and burning.
Chemical Stability - also known as thermodynamic
stability. Occurs when a system is in its lowest
energy state, or in chemical equilibrium with its
environment.
Oxidation States - total number of electrons that
an atom either gains or loses in order to form a
chemical bond with another atom.
Physical Property - can be measured and
observed without changing the composition or
identity of a substance.
Types:
Intensive Property - does not depend on size or
amount of the sample.
Ex. Boiling point, melting point, density, solubility,
conductivity, malleability, color, temperature, odor
and hardness.
Extensive Property - can be affected by size, and
number of samples.
Ex. Volume, mass, size, weight, and length.
Classification of Matter
Pure Substance - has a definite proportion, all
elements and compounds present in our daily
consumption are pure substance.
Mixtures - combination of two or more substance
in which substance retain their distinct identities.
Elements : Building blocks of matter
- substance that cannot be separated into simpler
substance by chemical means.
Metals - They are ductile. Malleable. Can be
hammered without breaking them. Good
Conductors of heat and electricity.
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Non- Metals - can be easily break. Cannot be
hammered without breaking. They are insulators.
Metalloids - behave like metals and non-metals.
Have the same physical appearance as metals.
Behave chemically like non - metals.
Compounds: Elements in Combination
- substance composed of atoms of two or more
elements chemically combined in fixed
proportions.
A. Ionic Compounds - formed by electrostatic
attraction between positively charge ions
(cations) and negative charge ion (anions). Held
together by ionic bonds. Ex. Sodium Chloride
(NaCl), Calcium carbonate (CaCo3)
B. Covalent Compounds - Also known as molecular
compounds, formed when atoms share electrons
to achieve stable electron configuration. Consist of
molecule made up of a covalently bonded atoms.
Ex. Water (H20) and Methane (CH4)
C. Organic Compounds - subgroup of covalent
compounds that primarily contain carbon and
hydrogen atoms. Basis of life and include
substance such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids.
D. Inorganic Compounds - do not contain carbon -
hydrogen (C-H) bonds, except for a few
exemptions like carbonates and cyanide.
Acids - substance that can donate protons in
aqueous solutions. Ability to increase the
concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
- can be part of compounds such as acetic acid in
vinegar.
Bases - substance that can accept proteins in
aqueous solution. Ability to increase the
concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution.
- can be part of compounds such as sodium
hydroxide in sodium hydroxide solutions.
Salts - Ionic Compounds formed when an acid
reacts with a base through a process called
neutralization.
- Positively charged ion (Base)
- Negativity charged ion (Acid)
Homogeneous Mixture - Also knows as solutions,
are uniform throughout. Evenly distributed that
you cannot visually distinguished one from
another.
Ex. Salt Water
Heterogeneous Mixture - not uniform, and can
easily distinguish the individual components with
the naked eye or simple tools.
Colloids - heterogeneous mixture in which tiny
particles or droplets of one substance is dispersed
throughout another substance. Do not settle out
over time due to gravity or diffusion; they remain
suspended and dispersed.
Suspension - heterogeneous mixture in which
larger solid particles are suspended in a liquid or
gas medium. Large enough to settle overtime due
to gravity.
Saltwater or Seawater is a geological term that
refers to naturally solutions containing large
concentration of dissolved, inorganic ions.
Common Separation Techniques
Filtration - to separate solid particles from a liquid
or gas using porous barrier, such as filter paper.
Distillation - involves heating a mixture to
separate its components based on difference in
boiling points..
Chromatography - method used to separates its
components of a mixture based on their ability to
move through a stationary phase (e.g, paper,
column) at different rates. Used to separate
colored compounds.
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Evaporation - use to separate solvent from a
dissolved solute by heating the mixture. Solvent
evaporates, leaving solute behind.
Magnetism - Using magnets to separate magnetic
substance from non-magnetic ones.
Centrifugation - Involves spinning a mixture at
high speeds in a centrifuge, components separates
based on their density.
Decantation - Process of carefully pouring off the
top layer of a liquid mixture to separate in from
the heavier particles settled at the bottom.
Extraction - process of separating components of
mixture by using a solvent that selectively dissolves
one component allowing it to be separated from
the rest of the mixture.
CONSUMER PRODUCT
- something that we cannot live without.
- Final good that is bought by individuals for
personal use. Bought for consumption by the
average consumer.
Consumer Product, Some Chemical Components,
Use, Level of Safeness and Cost
Accuracy - Refers to how close a measurement is
to the true value.
- in ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) measurement with both true and
consistent results. Has no systematic error and no
random error.
- level of correctness of a measurement to its true
value.
- One factor used for measuring.
- Have to be precise in most cases.
Precision - how consistent results are when
measurements are repeated. Has random error,
which is a form of observational error.
- Sharp exactness of a measurement.
- Multiple factors for measurement.
- Precise items may or not be accurate.
High Accuracy with Low Precision
- Measurements are close to the true value, but
not consistent with each other.
Low Accuracy with High Precision
- Measurements are consistent with each other but
far from the true value.
High Accuracy with High Precision
- Measurements are bith close to the true value
and consistent with each other.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
- also called as significant digits.
- used to report a value, measured or calculated,
to the correct number of decimal places that will
reflect the precision of the value.
The conversation of Mass
- total mass presents before a chemical reaction is
the same as the total mass.
- Formulated by Lavoisier as a result of his
combustion experiment, he observed that the
mass of his original substance.
- Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
Definite Proportions
- Joseph Proust (1754-1826) formulated the law of
definite proportions (Law of Constant Composition
or Proust's Law). In any chemical compound, the
mass ratio of its elements is constant.
Multiple Proportions
- whenever the same two elements form more
than one compound, the different masses of the
other element are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
JOHN DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY
- Started teaching school at the age of 12 and was
primarily known as a teacher. He moved to the
growing city of Manchester in twenties, where he
was able to pursue some scientific studies.
- Studied the weights of various elements and
compounds.
- All matter is composed of extremely small
particles called atoms.
Atomic Number (Z)
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- number of protons in the nucleus pf each atoms charged that this cathode rays become knows as
of an element. In neutral atom , the number of electrons.
protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Chemical Bonds - attractive force that holds two
Mass Number (A) atoms together in more complex unit. Chemical
- Total Number of neutrons and protons present in bond is closely link to electron configuration.
the nucleus of an atom of an element. All atomic
nuclei contain both protons and neutrons except
hydrogen which has one protons and no neutrons.

mass number = number of protons+ number of

neutrons
= atomic number + number of neutrons
Isotopes
- Atoms of a given element do not all have the
same mass. Most elements have to or more
isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers.

Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)

- AMU is the 1/12th the mass of ¹²C atom
- 1 AMU = 1.660054 × 10-²⁷
- kg = 1.66054 × 10 -²⁴ g

Atom
- basic unit of an element that can enter into
chemical combination.
- Atom usually posses internal structure: they are
made up of even smaller particles which is called
subatomic particles.

Subatomic Particle

Protons - Discovered by Enrest Rutherford (1919)

performed gold oil experiment.
- He concluded that protons exist in a nucleus and
have positive charge.

Neutrons - Discovered by James Chadwick (1932)

demonstrated that penetrating radiation
incorporated beams of neutral particles.
- Neutrons and Protons make up almost all of the
mass of atom.

Electrons - Discovered by John Joseph Thomson

(1897) demonstrated the ratio of mass to electric
charge of cathode rays. He said that cathode rays
are fundamental particles that are negativity