CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1 – STUDY OF CHANGE
The scientific method - is a systematic approach to
research.
Hypothesis - is a tentative explanation for a set of
observations.
Law - is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Theory - is a unifying principle that explains a body
of facts and/or those laws that are based on
them.
Chemistry - is the study of matter and the changes
it undergoes.
Matter - is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
Substance - is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
Mixture - is a combination of two or more
substances in which the substances retain their
distinct identities.
Homogenous mixture (solution) – The composition
of the mixture is the same throughout (at the
atomic/molecular level).
Heterogeneous mixture – The composition is not
uniform throughout.
Physical means - can be used to separate a
mixture into its pure components.
Element - is a substance that cannot be separated
into simpler substances by chemical means.
Compound - is a substance composed of atoms of
two or more elements chemically united in
fixed proportions.
- can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.
States of Matter
➢ Solid - molecules are held close together in
an orderly fashion with little freedom of
motion.
➢ Liquid – molecules are close together but
are not held so rigidly in position and can
move past one another.
➢ Gas - molecules are separated by distances
that are large compared with the size of the
molecules.
Physical change - does not alter the composition
or identity of a substance.
Chemical change - alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.
Extensive property (of a material) - depends upon
how much matter is is being considered.
Intensive property (of a material) - does not
depend upon how much matter is being
considered.
Mass – measure of the quantity of matter. Unit: kg
Weight – force that gravity exerts on an object
weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh
on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter
(𝑚3 )
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/𝑚3
CHAPTER 2 – ATOMS_ION
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
- Elements - composed of extremely small
particles called atoms.
- All atoms of a given element are identical,
having the same size, mass and chemical
properties.
- The atoms of one element are different from
the atoms of all other elements.
- Compounds - composed of atoms of more
than one element. In any compound, the
ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of
the elements present is either an integer or
a simple fraction.
- A chemical reaction - involves only the
separation, combination, or rearrangement
of atoms; it does not result in their creation
or destruction.
X-ray beam - dislodges an electron from air
molecules which becomes attached to an oil
droplet.
Molecule - an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by covalent
bonds.
Monatomic ion - contains only one atom.
Diatomic molecule - contains only two atoms.
Polyatomic molecule - contains more than two
atoms.
Ion - an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
Cation - ion with a positive charge: lose atom
Anion - ion with a negative charge: gain atom
1
CHEMISTRY
Molecular formula - shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of the
substance.
Empirical formula - shows the simplest whole-
number ratio of the atoms in a substance.
Ionic compounds - consist of a combination of
cations and anions.
Chemical Nomenclature
Ionic Compounds - often a metal + nonmetal
Transition metal ionic compounds - Indicate the
charge on the metal with Roman numerals
- Common names use the “ic” and “ous”
endings.
Molecular compounds - Made of nonmetals or
nonmetals + metalloids.
- the last element ends in “ide.”
Acid - can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Oxoacid - is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.
Base - can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water.
Hydrates - compounds that have a specific number
of water molecules attached to them.
Organic chemistry - the branch of chemistry that
deals with carbon compounds
CHAPTER 3 - Mass Relationships in Chemical
Reactions
Atomic mass - the mass of an atom in atomic mass
units (amu).
Mole (mol) - the amount of a substance that
contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C.
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) - the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
Formula mass - the sum of the atomic masses (in
amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.
Chemical reaction - process in which one or more
substances is changed into one or more new
substances.
Chemical equation - uses chemical symbols to
show what happens during a chemical reaction.
Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that
would result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
Actual Yield - the amount of product actually
obtained from a reaction.
CHAPTER 4 - Reactions in Aqueous Solution
Solution - a homogenous mixture of 2 or more
substances.
Solute - the substance(s) present in the smaller
amount(s)
Solvent - the substance present in the larger
amount.
Electrolyte - a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct
electricity.
Nonelectrolyte - a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct
electricity.
Hydration - the process in which an ion is
surrounded by water molecules arranged in a
specific manner.
Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from
solution.
Solubility - the maximum amount of solute that will
dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a
specific temperature.
Arrhenius acid - a substance that produces H+
(H3O+) in water.
Arrhenius base - a substance that produces OH- in
water.
Brønsted acid - a proton donor
Brønsted base - a proton acceptor
Brønsted acid - must contain at least one ionizable
proton.
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- Combination Reaction
- Decomposition Reaction
- Combustion Reaction
- Displacement Reaction
- Disproportionation Reaction
Concentration of a solution - the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
Dilution - the procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated solution.
Titration - solution of accurately known
concentration is added gradually added to
another solution of unknown concentration until
2
CHEMISTRY
the chemical reaction between the two solutions
is complete.
Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction
is complete.
Indicator – substance that changes color at (or
near) the equivalence point.
CHAPTER 5 - Gases
Physical Characteristics of Gases
- Gases assume the volume and shape of
their containers.
- Gases are the most compressible state of
matter.
- Gases will mix evenly and completely when
confined to
- the same container.
- Gases have much lower densities than
liquids and solids.
Gas diffusion - the gradual mixing of molecules of
one gas with molecules of another by virtue of
their kinetic properties.
Gas effusion - process by which gas under
pressure escapes from one compartment of a
container to another by passing through a small
opening.
CHAPTER 6 - Thermochemistry
Energy - the capacity to do work.
Radiant energy - comes from the sun and is earth’s
primary energy source.
Thermal energy - the energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules.
Chemical energy - the energy stored within the
bonds of chemical substances.
Nuclear energy - the energy stored within the
collection of neutrons and protons in the atom.
Potential energy - the energy available by virtue of
an object’s position.
Heat - the transfer of thermal energy between two
bodies that are at different temperatures.
Temperature - a measure of the thermal energy.
Thermochemistry - the study of heat change in
chemical reactions.
System - the specific part of the universe that is of
interest in the study.
Exothermic process - any process that gives off
heat –transfers thermal energy from the system
to the surroundings.
Endothermic process - any process in which heat
has to be supplied to the system from the
surroundings.
Thermodynamics - the scientific study of the
interconversion of heat and other kinds of
energy.
State functions - properties that are determined by
the state of the system, regardless of how that
condition was achieved.
First law of thermodynamics – energy can be
converted from one form to another but cannot
be created or destroyed.
Enthalpy (H) - used to quantify the heat flow into or
out of a system in a process that occurs at
constant pressure.
The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount
of heat (q) - required to raise the temperature of
one gram of thesubstance by one degree
Celsius.
The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount
of heat (q) - required to raise the temperature of
a given quantity (m) of the substance by one
degree Celsius.
Standard enthalpy of formation - the heat change
that results when one mole of a compound is
formed from its elements at a pressure of 1 atm.
Standard enthalpy of reaction - the enthalpy of a
reaction carried out at 1 atm.
The enthalpy of solution - the heat generated or
absorbed when a certain amount of solute
dissolves in a certain amount of solvent.
CHAPTER 7 - Quantum Theory and the
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Wavelength - the distance between identical points
on successive waves.
Amplitude - the vertical distance from the midline
of a wave to the peak or trough.
Frequency - the number of waves that pass
through a particular point in 1 second (Hz = 1
cycle/s).
Electromagnetic radiation - the emission and
transmission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
3
CHEMISTRY

Maxwell (1873) - proposed that visible light Electron affinity - the negative of the energy
consists of electromagnetic waves. change that occurs when an electron is
Photon - a “particle” of light. accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to
form an anion.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom (1913)
1. e- can only have specific (quantized) energy
values
2. light is emitted as e- moves from one energy
level to a lower energy level
De Broglie (1924) - reasoned that e- is both particle
and wave.
Schrodinger Wave Equation
- In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that
described both the particle and wave nature
of the e-
- can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen
atom.
Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an
atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
Shell – electrons with the same value of n
Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and
l.
Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and
ml.
*The most stable arrangement of electrons in
subshells is the one with the greatest number of
parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
Electron configuration - how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals in
an atom.
Pierre Janssen (1868) - detected a new dark line
in the solar emission spectrum that did not
match known emission lines.
William Ramsey (1895) - discovered helium in a
mineral of uranium (from alpha decay).

CHAPTER 8 - Periodic Relationships Among

the Elements
Effective nuclear charge - the positive charge felt
by an electron.
Cation - always smaller than atom from which it is
formed.
Anion - always larger than atom from which it is
formed.
Ionization energy - the minimum energy (kJ/mol)
required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom in its ground state.