CHAPTER 1: MATTER, ENERGY, AND
MEASUREMENT
MATTER - anything that has mass and takes up
space.
CHEMISTRY- a science that deals with matter: the
structure and properties of matter and the
transformations from one form of matter to another.
CHEMICAL CHANGE- more commonly called as
CHEMICAL REACTION, some substances are
used up (disappear) and others are formed to take
their place.
PHYSICAL CHANGE- the identities of the
substances do not change.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES- are all properties that
do not involve chemical reactions. (density, color,
melting point and physical state (solid, liquid & gas)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES - the chemical reaction
undergoes
SCIENTIFIC METHOD - it is a tool used by
scientist to learn and testing the theories.
- heart of scientific method is the testing of theories.
FACT - a statement based on direct experience
HYPOTHESIS - a statement that is proposed, w/o
actual proof, to explain the facts and relationship.
THEORY-formulation of an apparent relationship
among certain observed phenomena, which has
been verified to some extent.
WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)-he tested Galen's
hypothesis by dissecting human and animal hearts
and blood vessel.
FABRICIUS (1537-1619)- Harvey's teacher, had
previously observed that one-way valves exist in
veins, so that blood in the veins can travel only
toward the heart and not the other way.
MALPIGHI (1628-1694)-using the newly invented
microscope, found in tiny vessels, which are now
called capillaries.
Exponential Notation- based on powers of 10
MEASUREMENTS
- consist of 2 parts: number and unit.
Metric System- system that originated in France
about 1800 and that has since spread throughout
the world
International System of Units (SI) - based on metric
system and uses some of the metric units. SI is
more restrictive and it discourages the use of
certain metric units and favors others.
STATES OF MATTER
Matter can exist in 3 states: gas, solid, liquid
Gases- no definite shape or volume, highly
compressible and can be forced into small
containers
Liquids- no definite shape but have definite volume,
Solids- definite shape and volume, incompressible
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CHAPTER 2: ATOMS
DEMOCRITUS- he believed that all matter is made
of a very small particles called ATOMS.
ELEMENTS-is a substance that consist of identical
atoms.
COMPOUND- is a pure substance made up two or
more elements in fixed ratio by mass.
MIXTURES- is a combination of two or more pure
substances.
Ex. Blood, butter, gasoline, soap, etc.
HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE- where at least two
components can be observed.
HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE- no amount of
magnification will reveal the presence of difference
substances.
DALTON’s ATOMIC THEORY
JOHN DALTON- put forth a model of matter that
underlies modern scientific atomic theory.
MOLECULE- is a tightly bound combination of two
or more atoms act as a single unit.
ANTOINE LAURENT LAVOISIER- he discovered
the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, which
states that all matter can be neither created nor
destroyed.
JOSEPH PROUST- demonstrated the LAW OF
CONSTANT COMPOSITION, which states that any
compound is always made up of elements in the
same portion by mass
MONATOMIC ELEMENTS- elements consist of
single atoms that are not connected to each other.
Ex. Helium and neon
DIATOMIC MOLECULES- the only 7 elements,
such as O,H, N,F,Cl, Br and I.
POLYATOMIC MOLECULES- one form of sulfur,
S8.
THREE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
1. PROTON- has a positive charge.
- ATOMIC MASS UNIT (amu)- a unit of a
scale of relative mass: 1amu= 1.6605x
−24
10 g
2. ELECTRON- has a negative charge.
3. NEUTRON- has no charge.
Protons and neutrons are found in a tight cluster in
the center of an atom called NUCLEUS.
MASS NUMBER= the number of protons +
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER- the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
ISOTOPES-atoms with the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
ATOMIC WEIGHT- the weighted average of the
masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of the
element.
DMITRI MENDELEYEV
PERIOD- the elements in a horizontal row of the
periodic table
FAMILIES- the elements in the vertical columns of
the periodic table.
MAIN GROUP ELEMENTS- the elements in the A
groups (groups 1A, 2A, and 3A-8A) of the periodic
table.
3 CLASSES OF ELEMENTS
1. METALS- elements that are solid at room
temperature (except mercury, which is
liquid)
2. NONMETALS- elements that do not have
the characteristic properties of a metal and,
in their reactions, tend to accept electrons. (
18 elements)
3. METALLOIDS-elements that display some
of the properties of metals and non metals. (
6 elements such as B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
HALOGENS- the elements in group 7A of the
periodic table.
ALKALI METALS- the elements, except hydrogen,
in group 1A of the periodic table.
NOBLE GASES – elements in group A8
GROUND STATE- the electron configuration of the
lowest energy state of an atom.
PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVELS- the energy levels
containing orbitals of the same number.
SHELLS- all orbitals of a principal energy of an
atom.
SUBSHELLS- all the orbitals of an atom having the
same principal energy level and the same letter
designation.
ORBITALS- the regions of space around nucleus
that can hold a maximum of two electrons
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION- a description of
the orbitals of an atom or ion occupied occupied by
electrons.
VALENCE ELECTRONS- the electrons in the
outermost occupied shell of an atom.
VALENCE SHELL- the outermost occupied shell of
an atom.
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE- the symbol of element
surrounded by a number of dots equal to the
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number of electrons in the valence shell of an atom
of that element
ION- an atom with unequal number of protons and
electrons.
IONIZATION ENERGY- the energy required to
remove the most loosely held electrons from an
atom in the gas phase.
CHAPTER 3: (CHEMICAL BONDS)
OCTET RULE- when undergoing a chemical
reaction, atoms of group 1A-7A elements tend to
gain, lose, or share sufficient electron configuration
having eight valence electrons.
ANION- in gaining electrons, the atom becomes
negatively charge.
CATION- in losing electron, the atom becomes
positively charge.
MONATOMIC CATION- containing only one atom.
POLYATOMIC CATION- contains more than one
atom.
2 MAJOR TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
1.) IONIC BOND- a chemical bond resulting
from the attraction between positive and
negative ions.
2. COVALENT BOND- a chemical bond
resulting from the sharing of electrons between
atoms
ELECTRONEGATIVITY-is a measure of an atom’s
attraction for the electrons it shares in a chemical
bond with another atom.
IONIC COMPOUND- the compound formed by the
electrostatic attraction of positive and negative ions.
BINARY COMPOUND- contains only two
elements.
BINARY IONIC COMPOUND- both elements are
present as ions
SINGLE BOND- a bond formed by sharing one pair
of electrons and represented by a single line
between two atoms.
NONPOLAR COVALENT- a covalent bond
between two atoms whose difference in
electronegativity is less than 0.5
POLAR COVALENT- a covalent bond between two
atoms whose difference in electronegativity is
between 0.5 and 1.9
BONDING ELECTRONS- valence electrons
involved in forming a covalent bond that is shared
electrons.
NONBONDING ELECTRONS- valence electrons
are not involved in forming covalent bonds that is
unshared.
DOUBLE BOND- a bond formed by sharing two
pairs of electron and represented by three lines
between the two bonded atoms.
 RESONANCE- a theory that many molecules and
ions are best described as a hybrid of two or more
lewis contributing structures.
CONTRIBUTING STRUCTURES- representations
of a molecule or ion that differ only in the
distribution of valence electrons.
VSEPR ( VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR
REPULSION) MODEL
BOND ANGLE- the angle between two bonded
atoms and a central atom
CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 Spectator Ions - Ions that do not react.
 Net Ionic Equation - Ions that react. Both charges
and the number of atoms must be balanced.
 Oxidation - is the loss of electrons. Can be also
defined as the gain of oxygens.
 Reduction - is the gain of electrons.
 Exothermic - a reaction that gives off heat.
 Endothermic - a reaction that absorbs heat.
 Heat of reaction- the heat given off or gained in a
reaction.
 Heat of combustion – he heat given off in a
combustion reaction.
 Actual Yield- the mass product actually formed or
isolated in a chemical reactions.
 Theoretical Yield - the mass of product that should
form in a chemical reaction.
 Percent Yield- the actual yield divided by the
theoretical yield times 100.
 Stoichiometry- is the study of the mass
relationship. A balanced Chemical Equation tells us
not only which substances react and which are
formed but also the molar ratios in which they react.
 Limiting reagents - the reagent that is first used
up first in reaction.
 Chemical Equation- is an expression in which
reactants are converted to which products.
 Balanced Chemical Equation- Shows how many
moles of each starting material are converted to
how many moles of each product according to law
of conservation of mass.
 Formula Weight (FW)- Sum of the atomic weights
of all atoms in the compound expressed in An
atomic mass units (amu). Formula weights applies
to both ionic and molecular compounds.
 Atomic Weight (AW)- also expressed in (amu)
applies to molecular compounds.
 Mole (mol)- any substance is defined as
avogadro’s number.
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 Avogadro’s Number- The number of formula units
in a mole.
 Amadeo Avogador (1776-1856) - Italian physicist
who first proposed the concept of a mole but was
not able to experimentally determine the number of
units it represented.
 Respiration – the oxygen in the air we breathe
oxidizes carbon-containing compounds in our cells
to produce CO2 and H2O.
 Bleaching- most bleaching involves oxidation and
common bleaches are oxidizing agents. The
colored compounds being bleached are usually
organic compounds oxidation converts them to
colorless compounds.
 Batteries – a voltaic cell is a device in which
electricity is generated from a chemical reaction.
 Aqueous solution – a solution in which the solvent
is atwer
 Spectator ion- an ion that appears unchanged on
both sides of a chemical equation
 Net ionic – does not contain spectator ions
 Oxidation reduction reaction- involves the
transfer of electrons form one species to another.
 Dissociation – When dissolve in water, the
positive and negative ions separate form each
other
 Combustion – burning in air
CHAPTER 5: GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS
 Intermolecular attractive forces help hold matter
together; in effect they encounter another form of
energy---kinetic energy---that tends to lead to a
number of different ways for molecules to arrange
themselves.
 Kinetic Energy increases with increasing
temperature.
- the higher temperature, the greater the tendency
of particles to have more possible arrangements.
GASEOUS STATE
 At a high temperature, molecules possess a high
KE and move so fast that intermolecular attractive
forces between them are too weak to hold them
together.
 Molecules far apart and disordered.
 Negligible interactions between molecules.
LIQUID STATE
 Molecule move past to each other, but they travel
much more slowly than they do in gaseous state.
 Intermediate situation
SOLID STATE
 Temperature is low enough, molecules no longer
have enough energy to move past each other.
 Molecules close together and ordered. Partial pressure - the pressure that gas in a
 Strong interactions between molecules. mixture of gases would exert if it were alone in the
PRESSURE container.
- The force per unit area exerted against a surface. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Barometer - is an instrument to measure 1. Gases consist of particles, either atoms or
atmospheric pressure. molecules, constantly moving through space in
Millimeters of mercury (mmHg) - most commonly straight lines, in random directions, and with
measured pressure. various speeds.
torr - measured pressure 2. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is
- named in honor of Evangelista Torricelli proportional to the temperature in kelvins.
(1608-164), who invented the barometer. 3. Molecules collide with each other, bouncing off
1 atmosphere(atm) = 760 mmHg each other and changing directions.
Manometer - measuring the pressure of gas in a 4. Gas particles have no volume.
container. 5. There are no attractive forces between gas
GAS LAWS particles.
BOYLE'S LAW (Pressure and Volume) 6. Molecules collide with the walls of the container,
- volume is inversely proportional to the and these collisions constitute the pressure of the
applied pressure. gas.
P1V1 = P2V2 Because of this 6 assumptions of kinetic molecular
if the pressure doubles the volume decreases by theory a gas in called an ideal gas.
one-half. Condensation- the change of a substance from
the vapor or gaseous state to the liquid state.
CHARLES' LAW (Temperature and Volume) Solidification- the change of a substance from
- pressure is directly proportional to the liquid to the solid state.
temperature in kelvin (K). Three types of Intermolecular Forces:
V1 V2 A. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
=
T1 T2 -Fritz London (1900-1954)
- Increasing the temperature of the gas -only force attraction between non polar molecules.
causes an increase in the volume. -weak intermolecular forces
GAY LUSSAC'S LAW (Temperature and Pressure) - weak attraction causes by the electrostatic
- pressure is directly proportional to attraction between temporary included dipoles
temperature in kelvin (K). B. DIPOLE DIPOLE FORCES
P1 P2 -attraction between the positive end of a dipole of
=
T1 T2 one molecule and the negative end of another
- As the temperature of the gas increases, dipole in the same or different molecule.
the pressure increases proportionally. -exist between two identical polar molecules or two
COMBINED GAS LAW different polar molecules.
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 C. HYDROGEN BONDING
relationship between mass of gas and its volume is - O, N or F
described by Avogrado's law, which states that -attraction between the partial positive charge on a
equal volume of gases at the same temperature hydrogen atom bonded to an atom of high
and pressure contains equal molecule. electronegativity, most commonly O, N, and the
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) 0oC partial negative charge on a nearby oxygen or
(273K) and 1 atm nitrogen.
IDEAL GAS LAW
PV = nRT SUFRACE TENSION
a gas whose physical properties are described energy required to increase the surface
accurately by the ideal gas law. R = 0.0821 area of a liquid.
𝐿 𝑎𝑡𝑚 VAPOR PRESSURE
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
the partial pressure of a gas in equilibrium
DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
with its liquid form in a closed container.
states that the total pressure, Pt, of a
Equilibrium- a condition in which two opposing
mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressure
processes occur at an equal rate.
of each individual gas:
Relative Humidity -the vapor pressure of water in
Pt= P1+P2+P3+ ....
the atmosphere.

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 D. BOILING POINT
- the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Normal Boiling Point - liquid boils under a
pressure of 1 atm.
Factors that affect boiling point:
1. Intermolecular forces
2.Number of sited for intermolecular interaction
(surface area)
3. Molecular shape
VARIOUS TYPES OF SOLIDS
Crystallization - the formation of solid from liquid.
Crystalline solids- molecules have an
ordered arrangement extending over long range.
Amorphous solids- consist of random
arranged particles that have no ordered long-range
strucutre.
Allotropes- forms have different and physical
properties.
PHASE CHANGES -changes from one physical
state to another.
HEAT FUSSION -the heat necessary to melt 1.0g
of solid
SPECIFIC HEAT- the heat required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a given substance
by a given amount (usually one degree).
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION- Amount of heat
necessary to vaporize liquid at its normal boiling
point.
HEATING CURVE - graphically represents the
phase transitions that a substance undergoes
as heat is added to it.
SUBLIMATION- A transition from the solid state
directly into the vapor state without going through
the liquid state.
PHASE DIAGRAM- where you can show all phase
changes for any substance.
CHAPTER 6: SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS
Alloys- homogeneous mixtures of 2 or more metals
Solvent- a solution consists of a solid or a gas
dissolved in a liquid, the liquid is called solvent
The distributing characteristics of a solution
1. The distribution of particles in a solution in uniform.
2. The components of a solution do not separate on
standing.
3. A solution cannot be separated into its components
by filtration.
4. For any given solute and solvent, it is possible to
make solutions of many different compositions.
5. Solutions are almost always transparent.
6. Solutions can be separated into pure components.
Miscible- water and ethanol is ____.
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Saturated- a solvent contains all the solute it can
hold at a given temperature call the solution.
Unsaturated- any solution containing a lesser
amount of a solute.
Supersaturated solution- a solution that contains
more than the equilibrium amount of solute at a
given temperature and pressure.
Seeding- a process called a way to crystallize the
excess solute is to add a crystal of the solute.
Henry’s law- the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the pressure.
Percent concentration- the number of grams of
solute in 100ml of solution
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡\𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑤\𝑣)%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= × 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡\𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑤\𝑣)%
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= × 100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒\𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣\𝑣)%
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= × 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Molarity- defined as a number of moles of a solute
dissolved in 1L of solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑛)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑀) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐿)
Solvated- general term for covering all solvents.
Water of hydrogen- water molecules in a crystal
Hydrates-substance that contain water in their
crystal are themselves called____.
Anhydrous- the crystal without its water of
hydration
Hygroscopic- some anhydrous crystal become
hydrated upon standing in air crystal s that do so
are called_____. A quantity of a substance that is
able to absorb water vapor from the air.
Cathode- cations migrate to the negative electrode
Anode- anions migrates to positive electrode
Electrolyte- a substance, such as potassium
chloride, that conducts an electric current when
dissolve in water or when water in the molten state.
Nonelectrolyte- a substance that does not conduct
electricity.
Strong electrolytes- compounds that dissociate
completely
Weak electrolytes- compounds that dissociate
only partially into ions
Tyndall effect- light passing through and scattered
by a colloid viewed at the right angle.
Suspension- the system is unstable and separates
into phases
Brownian motion- this motion of any colloidal
particle suspended in a solvent.
Emulsions- systems such as fats in milk,
consisting of a liquid with or without an emulsifying
agent in an immiscible liquid usually as droplets of
larger than colloidal size.
Colligative property- a property of a solution that
depends only on the number of solute particles and
not on the chemical identity of the solute.
Osmosis- passage of the solvent molecules from a
less concentrated solution across a semipermeable
membrane into a more concentrated solution.
Osmotic pressure (II)- the amount of external
pressure that must be applied to the more
concentrated solution to stop the passage of
solvent molecules across a semipermeable
membrane.
CHAPTER 7: REACTION RATES AND
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
How Do We Measure Reaction Rates?
• The Rate of Reaction is the change in
concentration of a reactant or a product per unit
time. Some reactions are fast; others are slow.
Rate = Δconcentration
Δtime
• The rate of reaction is not constant over a long
period of time. At the beginning,
• In most reactions, the change in concentration is
directly proportional to time.
• Initial rate is the constant during time interval.
Chemical Kinetics- The study of chemical rates of
chemical reaction.
Effective Collision- A collision between two
molecules or ions that results in a chemical
reaction.
Activation Energy- The minimum energy necessary
to cause a chemical reaction.
To summarize, the requirements for an effective
collision (for a chemical reaction to occur):
 The reactants must collide with each other.
 The molecules must have sufficient energy
to initiate the reaction (called activation
energy).
 The molecules must have the proper
orientation
Relationship Between Activation Energy and
Reaction Rate
• The lower the activation energy, the faster the
reaction.
• An energy diagram shows the progress of a
reaction.
• The position at the top of the curve in an energy
diagram is called the transition state.
The activation energy is the difference in the
energy between the transition state and the
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reactants. It’s depicted with a red arrow. The
enthalpy change—ΔHΔH—of the reaction is
depicted with a green arrow. So, now you should
be able to clearly differentiate between
E_{act}EactE, start subscript, a, c, t, end subscript
and ΔHΔH on an energy diagram.
In the case of an endothermic reaction, the
reactants are at a lower energy level compared to
the products—as shown in the energy diagram
below. In other words, the products are less stable
than the reactants. Since we are forcing the
reaction in the forward direction towards more
unstable entities, overall ΔHΔH for the reaction is
positive, i.e., energy is absorbed from the
surroundings.
In the case of an exothermic reaction, the
reactants are at a higher energy level as compared
to the products, as shown below in the energy
diagram. In other words, the products are more
stable than the reactants. Overall ΔHΔH for the
reaction is negative, i.e., energy is released in the
form of heat.
There are 4 methods by which you can increase
the rate of a reaction:
 Nature of the Reactants
 Increase the concentration of a reactant.
 Increase the temperature of the reactants.
 Add a catalyst to the reaction.
Rate Constant- A proportionality constant, k,
between the molar concentration of reactants and
the rate of reaction; rate=k.
Catalyst- A substance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction by providing an alternative
pathway with a lower activation energy.
Heterogeneous Catalysts- catalysts in separate
phase from the reactants.
Homogeneous Catalysts- catalysts in the same
phase as the reactants.
Dynamic Equilibrium- A state in which the rate of
the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction.
Equilibrium Constant- the ratio of product
concentrations to reactant concentrations (with
exponents that depend on the coefficients of the
balanced equation).
Le Chatelier’s Principle- A principle stating that
when a stress Is applied to a system in chemical
equilibrium, the position of the equilibrium shifts in
the direction that will reliev e the applied stress.
Five Types of Stress That Can Be Put On
Chemical Equilibrium
 Addition of a Reaction Component
-Causes the equilibrium to shift to the opposite
side.
 Removal of a Reaction Component
 -Causes the equilibrium to shift to the side from  The equilibrium of constant for the ionization of
which the component is removed. water, Kw is called “ion product of water”.
 Change in temperature  Ion product of water is equal to 1.0 x 10^-14.
-Increasing the temperature drives an exothermic pH and pOH
equilibrium to the side of the reactants; increasing  Hydronium ion concentrations are generally
the temperature drives an endothermic equilibrium expressed in pH units, with pH = -log [H3O+]
to the side of the products.  pH less than 7 are ACIDIC
 Change in Pressure  pH greater than 7 are BASIC
-Increasing the pressure of a mixture shifts the  pH of 7 are NEUTRAL SOLUTION
equilibrium in the direction that decreases the Equivalence point - The point in a titration at
moles in the gas phase; decreasing the pressure of which there is a stoichiomentrically equivalent
a mixture shifts the equilibrium in the direction that numberof moles of each reactants present.
increases the moles in the gas phase. Buffer – a solution that resist change in pH when
 The effects of a Catalyst limited amount of an acid or a base are added to it.
-Has no effect on the position of equilibrium Buffer capacity – The extent to which a buffer
solution can prevent a significant change in pH of a
CHAPTER 8: ACIDS AND BASES solution upon adding of a strong acid or a strong
According to Arrhenius: base.
ACID – are substances that produced H3O+ ions in
aqueous solution. HEDERSON-HASSELBALCH EQUATION
BASE – are substances that produced OH- ions in  Is a mathematical relationship between pH the pKa
aqueous solution. of a weak acid, and the concentration of the weak
Hydronium ion – the H3O+ ion. acid and its conjugate base:
Strong acid - an acid that ionizes completely in  pH = pKa + log [A-] / [HA]
aqueous solution.
Weak acids – acids that are only partially ionized in
aqueous solution.
Strong bases – bases that ionize completely in
aqueous solution,
Weak base – a base that is only partially ionized in
aqueous solution.
According to Johannes Bronsted and Thomas
Lowry:
Acid – proton donor
Base – proton acceptor
Conjugate acid - base pair – A pair of molecules
or ions that are related to one another by the gain
or loss of a proton.
Conjugate base – a substance formed when an
acid donates a proton to another molecule or ion.
Conjugate acid – a substance formed when a
base accepts a proton.
Monoprotic acids – acids that can give up only
one proton.
Diprotic acids – Acids that can give up two
protons.
Triprotic acid – an acid that can give up 3 protons.
Amphiprotic – a substance that can act as either
an acid or base.
 The strength of a weak acid is expressed by its
“ionization constant, Ka.
 The larger the value of Ka, the stronger the acid.
 pKa = -log [Ka]
ACIDIC AND BASIC PROPERTIES OF PURE
WATER:
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