Elements, Mixtures and Compounds

Chemistry is the study of physical matter, which is classified in many different ways,
such as state of matter (gas, liquid or solid), chemical form (element, mixture or
compound), chemical structure (atoms or molecules, etc.) and so on.
It is important to understand the terms "element", "mixture" and "compound", because
these convey useful information.
Another useful term is the word "substance", which can be used to refer to either an
element or a compound - but not to a mixture because a "substance" always has a
definite composition. The most general term is "matter" which can be used to refer to
any of "substances", "elements", "mixtures" or "compounds".

Elements

1. consist of only one type of atom - which may, or

may not join together to form molecules or large
structures, therefore:
2. can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules
(e.g., nitrogen)
3. cannot be broken down into a simpler type of
matter by either physical or chemical techniques though some larger elements break-down
spontaneously due to being radioactive.
Elements are listed in the periodic table.
Many elements are found in nature and so may be called
"naturally occurring elements". Other elements have not
been found in nature but can be produced in the
laboratory. A few more elements are thought to exist but
are very rare and even if produced would only exist for a
very short time because they are radioactive and would
quickly decompose into other elements whose atoms are
smaller. Read more about elements.

Example 1 : Element existing in the

form of atoms.

Example 2 : Element existing in the

form of diatomic molecules (i.e.
molecules formed from two atoms).

The categories of elements, mixtures and compounds are described in words below:

Mixtures

1. consist of two or more different elements and/or

compounds - physically intermingled,
2. can be separated into their constituent parts by
physical means (e.g. distilation of liquids or
seperating magnetic and non-magnetic solids
using a magnet), and
Mixtures are two or more substances that are mixed
together but not chemically joined. A good example of a
mixture is a salad. There are tomatoes, lettuce,
cucumbers, and salad dressing all mixed together. No
chemical reactions occur between the vegetables and the
dressing. You can separate each of the vegetables from
each other. When spices are added to a cake before
baking, do you think they form compounds or mixtures?
There are many different types of mixtures, some of
which have special names. These include:

Example 1 : Mixture of two elements,

both of which exist as atoms rather
than molecules.

Homogeneous Mixtures - in which the two or more

substances that form the mixture are evenly distributed
throughout the mixture, e.g. vinegar is a homogeneous
Example 2 : Mixture of two elements
,one of which exists as atoms, the other
mixture of ethanoic acid and water.
as molecules.
Heterogeneous Mixtures - in which the two or more
substances that form the mixture are not evenly
distributed throughout the mixture, e.g. oil and water.
Solutions - a special type
of homogeneous mixtures in which one substance
(called the "solute") is dissolved in another
substance (called the "solvent"), e.g. salt water is
salt dissolved in water - in such a way that the salt
no-longer exists as solid particles within the water.
Suspensions - heterogeneous fluid mixtures
Example 3 : Mixture of two elements,
containing solid particles large enough for
both of which exist as molecules rather
sedimentation, which means that the particles
than atoms.
(compare with the "solute" part of a solution) will
eventually settle to the bottom of the container
(unlike in the case of colloids, below), e.g. particles
of sand in water.

Example 4 : Mixture of an element (that

exists in the form of molecules) and a
compound.

Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures in which one is

substance microscopically dispersed evenly
throughout another substance (for comparison,
the size of the particles of "solute" are greater than
in the case of a solution, but much smaller than in
the case of a suspension). There are many
naturally occuring colloids, e.g. milk. Colloids are
very important in biology and medicine.
Alloys - mixtures in which the main elememt (or
elements) are metal(s). A more technical definition
of an alloy is "a partial or complete solid solution
of one or more elements in a metallic matrix".
Common examples of alloys include bronze, brass
and steels.

These different types of mixtures are interesting but may

not be essential knowledge for GCSE Chemistry. The
descriptions are non-technical (omitting details, e.g.
particle sizes), but sufficient for comparison of these
different types of mixtures.
Read more about mixtures.

Compounds

1. consist of atoms of two or more different

elements bound together chemically,
2. can be broken down into a simpler type of
matter (elements) by chemical means; but not
by physical means
3. always contains the same ratio of component
atoms.
4. have properties different from their component
elements (e.g. the compound water (H2O) is a
liquid at room temperature and pressure and
has different chemical properties from those of
the two elements, hydrogen (H2) and oxygen
(O2), from which it is formed).

Example 1 : Compound whose

molecules consist of one atom of one
element chemically joined with two
attoms of another element.

A compound is a pure substance that consists of two

or more elements chemically combined in a fixed
proportion, that can be further subdivided into simpler
substances by chemical (not physical) means only.
So, if a quantity of a material consists of atoms of two
or more elements joined together, always in the same
ratio, then the matter forming that material is a
compound.
A molecule is the smallest part of a compound whose properties are those of the
compound.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Shells
Electrons revolve around the positively charged nucleus (made of neutrons and protons)
in orbits called shells. The shell closest to nucleus is called the K shell (also called 1
shell), followed by L shell (or 2 shell), then M shell (or 3 shell) and so on. Each shell
can hold up to 2n2electrons, where n is the shell number. The K shell can hold up to 2
electrons, the L shell can hold up to 8 electrons, the M shell can occupy up to 18
electrons.

Subshells
Each shell is composed of one or more subshells. The first K shell has one subshell,
called 1s; the L shell has two subshells, called 2s and 2p; the third shell has 3s, 3p,
and 3d; and so on. A subshell is the set of states defined by azimuthal quantum
number, l, within a shell. The values l = 0, 1, 2, 3 correspond s, p, d and f subshells,
respectively. The maximum number of electrons which can occupy a subshell is given by
2(2l + 1). This gives two electrons in an s subshell, six electrons in a p subshell, ten
electrons in a d subshell and fourteen electrons in an f subshell.

Electronic Configurations

Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals

Occupation of Orbitals
The first thing to keep in mind is that electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. This would
mean that the electrons in an atom would fill the principal energy levels in order of increasing energy (the electrons
are getting farther from the nucleus). The order of levels filled would look like this:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p
One way to remember this pattern, probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table and remember where each
orbital block falls to logically deduce this pattern. Another way is to make a table like the one below and use vertical
lines to determine which subshells correspond to each other.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

The second major fact to keep in mind is the Pauli Exclusion Principle which states that no two
electrons can have the same four quantum numbers. The first three (n,l, and ml) may be similar
but the fourth quantum number must be different.A single orbital can hold a maximum of two
electrons, which must have opposing spins; otherwise they will have the same four quantum
numbers and that is not allowed. One electron will be spin up ( ms=+1/2) and the other would spin
down (ms=1/2). This tells us that each subshell has double the electrons per orbital. The s
subshell has 1 orbital that can hold to 2 electrons, the p subshell has 3 orbitals that can hold up to
6 electrons, the d subshell has 5 orbitals that hold up to 10 electrons, and the f subshell has 7
orbitals with 14 electrons.

Example 1

As you can see, the 1s subshell can hold only two electrons and when filled the electrons have opposite spins.

Write the electron configuration for aluminum.

Atomic Radii
1) As you move down a group, atomic radius increases.
WHY? - The number of energy levels increases as you move
down a group as the number of electrons increases. Each
subsequent energy level is further from the nucleus than the
last. Therefore, the atomic radius increases as the group and
energy levels increase.

2) As you move across a period, atomic radius decreases.

WHY? - As you go across a period, electrons are added to the same
energy level. At the same time, protons are being added to the nucleus.
The concentration of more protons in the nucleus creates a "higher
effective nuclear charge." In other words, there is a stronger force of
attraction pulling the electrons closer to the nucleus resulting in a smaller
atomic radius.
View a periodic table with atomic radii.

Ionic Radii
1) Anions (negative ions) are larger than their respective atoms.
WHY?
Electron-electron repulsion forces them to spread further apart.
Electrons outnumber protons; the protons cannot pull the extra electrons
as tightly toward the nucleus.
2) Cations (positive ions) are smaller than their respective atoms.
WHY?
There is less electron-electron repulsion, so they can come closer
together.
Protons outnumber electrons; the protons can pull the fewer electrons
toward the nucleus more tightly.
If the electron that is lost is the only valence electron so that the electron
configuration of the cation is like that of a noble gas, then an entire

energy level is lost. In this case, the radius of the cation is much smaller
than its respective atom.

First Ionization Energy

Definition: The energy required to remove the outermost (highest energy) electron
from a neutral atom in its ground state.
1) As you move down a group, first ionization energy decreases.
WHY?
Electrons are further from the nucleus and thus easier to remove the
outermost one.
"SHIELDING" - Inner electrons at lower energy levels essentially block
the protons' force of attraction toward the nucleus. It therefore becomes
easier to remove the outer electron
2) As you move across a period, first ionization energy increases.
WHY? - As you move across a period, the atomic radius decreases, that is, the atom
is smaller. The outer electrons are closer to the nucleus and more strongly attracted to
the center. Therefore, it becomes more difficult to remove the outermost electron.

Exceptions to First Ionization Energy Trends

1) Xs2 > Xp1 e.g. 4Be > 5B

WHY? - The energy of an electron in

an Xp orbital is greater than the energy
of an electron in its respective Xs
orbital. Therefore, it requires less
energy to remove the first electron in a
p orbital than it is to remove one from a
filled s orbital.

2) Xp3 > Xp4 e.g. 7N > 8O

WHY? - After the separate degenerate
orbitals have been filled with single
electrons, the fourth electron must be
paired. The electron-electron repulsion
makes it easier to remove the
outermost, paired electron.
(See Hund's Rule)

Veiw a periodic table with first ionization energies.

Second and Higher Ionization Energies

Definition: Second Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove a second
outermost electron from a ground state atom.
Subsequent ionization energies increase greatly once an ion has reached the state like
that of a noble gas. In other words, it becomes extremely difficult to remove an
electron from an atom once it loses enough electrons to lose an entire energy level so
that its valence shell is filled.
Ionization Energies (kJ/mol)

Element
Na
Mg
Al

1st IE
495.8
737.7
577.6

2nd IE
4562.4
1450.6
1816.6

3rd IE
6912
7732.6
2744.7

4th IE
9543
10,540
11,577

Electron Affinity
Definition: The energy given off when a neutral atom in the gas phase
gains an extra electron to form a negatively charged ion.
1) As you move down a group, electron affinity decreases.
2) As you move across a period, electron affinity increases.

Exceptions

Among nonmetals, however, the elements in the first period have lower electron
affinities than the elements below them in their respective groups.
Elements with electron configurations of Xs2, Xp3, and Xp6 have electron
affinities less than zero because they are unusually stable. In other words
instead of energy being given off, these elements actually require an input of
energy in order to gain electrons. e.g. Be, N, Ne
o WHY? - Electron affinities are all much smaller than ionization
energies.
1. Xs2 < 0: Stable, diamagnetic atom with no unpaired electrons.
2. Xp3 < 0: Stable atom with 3 unpaired p-orbital electrons each
occupying its own subshell.
Xp6 < 0: Stable atom with filled valence (outermost) shell.

Lattice Energy
Definition: The energy given off when oppositely charged ions in the
gas phase come together to form a solid.
The strength of a bond between ions of opposite charge can be calculated using
Coulomb's Law.
Coulomb's Law - The force of attraction between oppositely charged particles
is directly proportional to the product of the charges of the particles (q1 and q2)
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particles.

1) As you move down a group, lattice energy decreases.

WHY? - The atomic radius increases as you move down a group. Since
the square of the distance is inversely proportional to the force of
attraction, lattice energy decreases as the atomic radius increases.
2) As you increase the magnitude of the charge (becomes more positive or
more negative), lattice energy increases.
WHY? - The product of the charges of the particles is directly
proportional to the force of attraction. Therefore, lattice energy increases
as the charges increase