00 - Study

1 - Matter
Matter -> anything that has mass and occupies space.
Atom -> smallest part of an element
Nucleus -> composed of protons and neutrons, çekirdek
Proton -> positive particle in nucleus
Neutron-> neutral particle in nucleus

Proton and neutron are roughly equal in size and substance.

The Number of Neutrons: The difference between the mass number (A) and the
atomic number (Z) provides the number of neutrons
N = A – Z -> Number of Neutrons = Mass number - atomic number

Electron-> These negatively charged particles play a crucial role in determining the
atom’s chemical behavior and interactions with other atoms. Electrons within an atom
possess definite energies

Those closest to the nucleus (n=1) are tightly bound due to stronger
electrostatic attraction between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons.
Conversely, electrons in the highest orbit are less tightly bound.

Orbit -> electrons' orbits (contribute to volume, not substance)

Protons and neutrons in the nucleus play a crucial role in defining the amount
of substance in an object.
Size of an atom is not solely determined by the number of particles in its
nucleus. Example: Sodium atom (11 protons and 12 neutrons) is about the same size
as a mercury atom (80 protons and 121 neutrons).
The mass of an object is related to the number of protons and neutrons it
contains.Example: Hydrogen atom (1 proton) vs. lead atom (82 protons and 125
neutrons).

Atomic Table
Atomic Number-> Number of protons in the nucleus "Upper number"
Mass Number-> (Atomic Weight) Number of neutrons and protons. "Lower number"

Üsteki atom numarası alttaki mass. daha yüksek bir sayı oluyor mass.
Vertically -> number of electrons in the outermost electron shell of the
elements in that group.
Horizontally -> number of electron shells present in the elements within that
row

Shell Number : 1-2-3-4-5

How many electrons : 2-8-18-32-50
 50 diyor ama teorikmiş.
these orbits are often referred to as electron energy levels or electron
shells. They are designated by letters, such as K shell (n=1), L shell (n=2), M
shell (n=3), and N shell (n=4).
orbit’s numerical value (referred to as “n”) 2n² ile maksimum elektron
bulunabilir
The 1st shell (K) has a maximum capacity of 2 electrons. as write above.

Bu alttakiler her hangi birin n=4 misal alt orbitalleri (subshell) normal shell KLMN.
Bunların 1-2-3 dediği şeyde quantum number

1. S-orbitali: Sharp (Keskin)

2. P-orbitali: Principal (Asal)
3. D-orbitali: Diffuse (Dağınık)
4. F-orbitali: Fundamental (Temel)

Valency: Valence electrons are the electrons located in the outermost shell
(energy level) of an atom. Valency, a significant concept in chemistry, refers to
the number of hydrogen atoms with which an element can combine to form
compounds.Using hydrogen as a standard, we can observe the valency of selected
elements and their simplest compounds.
Hydrogen Special: Despite having only one electron, its characteristics vary
significantly from other elements in group 1, which are alkali metals. Hydrogen
can exhibit both metallic and non-metallic properties depending on the chemical
context in which it is involved.
- tip Group 18 houses the noble gases

Valence Ions-> The number of electron bindings in a semiconductor determines its

valence, and specific names are given to ions based on the number of electron
bindings:

1 electron binding: monovalent

2 electron binding: divalent

3 electron binding: trivalent

4 electron binding: tetravalent

5 electron binding: pentavalent

6 electron binding: hexavalent

Molecule->smallest unit of a chemical compound, consisting of two or more atoms

bonded together
Isotope-> When atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons , they
are called isotopes. Isotope mass slightly lower/higher mass than original.

hydrogen-1 (or simply hydrogen), deuterium (hydrogen-2), and tritium

(hydrogen-3)
ions-> Proton vs. eletron sayısı bir birbirinden farklıdır
 Eğer atom ion değilse Elektron sayısı, proton sayısına eşittir.

Shell-> orbit
Valence Electrons -> son orbitteki elektronlara verilen ad

Valency Calculation

Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell. The valency is the number of
electrons in the outer shell if that number is 4 or less. If there are more than
4 electrons, the valency is 8 minus the number of electrons. In this case 8 - 6
= 2

Helium, Neon, and Argon have a valency of 0, meaning they do not normally form
compounds due to their complete electron shells, making them chemically inert.
İşte bu nedenle "nobel" oldular.
with full electron shells are chemically inert, forming few compounds and
exhibiting low reactivity.
Elements with four electrons in their outer shell are referred to as
semiconductors, holding significant importance in electronics and semiconductor
device technology.

Chemical Special
Elements->pure substances composed of atoms, each having the same number of
protons

Element Dikkat!

-> Consists of only one kind of atom, meaning all atoms in an element are
identical.
-> Cannot be broken down into simpler types of matter by either physical or
chemical means.
-> Can exist in nature as either individual atoms (e.g., argon) or molecules
(e.g., nitrogen).

Mixtures -> combining two or more pure substances, and they retain the
properties of the substances they are made of. Unlike elements, mixtures can be
physically separated, and they usually melt at a range of temperatures.

Mixture Dikkat!

-> Often retain many of the properties of their individual components.

-> Can be separated into their individual components using physical means, such
as filtration or distillation.
-> Consist of two or more different elements and/or compounds that are
physically intermingled.
 Compound -> pure substances made up of more than one element that has
chemically combined through a chemical reaction. Difficult to seperate

Compound Dikkat!

-> Consist of atoms of two or more different elements bonded together

chemically.
-> Can be broken down into simpler types of matter (i.e., elements) only through
chemical means, such as chemical reactions.
-> Exhibit properties that are distinct from those of their component elements.
-> Always contain the same ratio of its component atoms, maintaining a
consistent chemical formula.

Unlike mixtures and elements, compounds do not have a boiling or melting

range, but they do have specific boiling and melting points, which are
characteristic of the compound’s chemical composition.

catalyst -> speeds up reactions

inhibitor->inhibitor slows down reaction.
Cohesion -> causes like substances to cling together (eg water molecules, forming
raindrops) GEÇİCİ
Adhesion -> causes unlike substances to stick together (eg the raindrops stick on a
washing line). GEÇİCİ
covalent bonds -> sharing of electron pairs between atoms. In a covalent bond, two
or more atoms share electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration,
typically resembling that of a noble gas.

other bondings -> Covalent, ionic, and metallic bonding. details at QA

Semiconductor Bonding -> semiconductors like silicon or germanium, atoms form

covalent bonds when they bond with similar atoms. In a covalent bond , each atom
shares one electron with four neighboring atoms, resulting in a solid lattice
structure of semiconductor atoms. The sharing of electrons creates a stable
configuration for each atom, and in this solid material, there are no free electrons
or “holes” for electrons to fit into.

Bazı şeyler

Oksijen - O -> Element

02 -> İki oksijenden oluşan -> Molecule
2O -> iki mol oksijen ama tek tek
H20 -> Compound (Bileşik)

States of Matter
Gas ->
Liquid ->
Solid ->
Plasma -> Plasma is also electrically conductive.
Properties of Matter
compressibility -> Solids cannot be easily compressed, liquids are difficult to
compress, and gases are highly compressible. The compressibility of each state
depends on the distance between molecules or atoms.

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Density highest medium low
Surface/Volume fixed depends on container
Compressibility resistance not readily compressible yes!
Flow rigid flows or weak resistance freely
Expansion expands expands expands

Solid
extremely difficult to compress,
greatest density (heaviest),
cannot flow freely like gases or liquids,
fixed surface and volume,
will expand a little on heating
rigit

Liquid
much greater density than gases (heavier)
fluids flow freely despite the forces of attraction between the particles but
fluids are not as free as gases.
Fluids have a surface, and a fixed volume but the shape is not fixed and is
merely that of the container itself.
Fluids are not readily compressed because of the lack of empty space between
the particles.
will expand on heating but nothing like as much as gases .When heated, the liquid
particles gain kinetic energy and hit the sides of the container more frequently
they hit with a greater force, so in a sealed container the pressure produced can
be considerable.

Gas
low density (light) (density = Mass / Volume)
Gases flow freely
Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume ( they spread out and fill
any container)
Gases are readily compressed
gases readily expand on heating
The natural rapid and random movement of the particles -> readily spread or
diffuse (rate of diffusion increases with increase temperature.)
State Changes
Evaporation / Boiling (liquid to gas) -> The transition from liquid to gas has two
names: boiling and evaporation.
Melting (solid to liquid /Liquefaction) -> The transition from solid to liquid is
called melting.
Freezing (liquid to solid /Solidification) -> The transition from liquid to solid
is called freezing.

Condensation (gas to liquid) -> The transition from gas to liquid is called
condensation.
Deposition (gas to solid/Resublimating) -> Deposition is the transition from gas
directly to solid without passing through the liquid phase.
Sublimating -> (solid to gas) -> Sublimation is the transition from solid directly
to gas without passing through the liquid phase.

2 - Mass
Force & Mass
Gravity ->
Mass ->
Weight ->
Spesific Gravity ->

Scalar & Vector Quantities

SI-units
the meter (m) as the unit of length,
the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass
the second (s) as the unit of time

Scalar: magnitude only, without any direction

Scalars are:
speed
distance
time
mass
volume
temperature
frequency
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Force;
Velocity;
Acceleration;
Momentum;
displacement
field strength.
Vector Calculation
Trigonometric Method -> Sadece bir birine dik ise -> a2 + b2 = c2

3 - Weight, Gravity, Center of Gravity

Weight
W eight = M ass × G

G (yer çekimi ivmesi) -> 9,81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2 in the imperial system.
Mass'i çekelim M ass = W eight÷G

Weight is a force its S.I. unit is the Newton but mass is Kilogram in SI
1 lb = 0,4kg

Spesific Gravity
Spesifik gravitiy, bir maddenin yoğunluğunun, suyun yoğunluğuna oranı

Substance Density kg/m3

Spesif ic Gravity =
Water Density 1000 kg/m3

Değer < 1 ise yani 0.3 falan, cisim yüzüyor, 1'den büyükse batıyor.

Density
Kütlenin hacme bölümüdür. birim hacime düşen malzeme.

mass
d =
V

4 - Deformation
3 modulus -> Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus, and Bulk Modulus. Each of these
measures different types of stress and strain relationships.

1. Young's Modulus (Elastic Modulus):

Definition: Measures the stiffness of a material by quantifying the ratio of
stress (force per unit area) to strain (proportional deformation) in a
material.
Formula: E = σ

Where σ is stress (N/m² or Pascals) and ε is strain (dimensionless).

Example: For a steel rod with a Young's Modulus of 200 GPa, if it is
subjected to a stress of 100 MPa, the strain would be ε = =
6
σ 100×10
= 0.0005
9
E 200×10

(dimensionless).
2. Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity):
Definition: Measures the material's response to shear stress (parallel to the
material's surface).
Formula: ( G = \frac{\tau}{\gamma} )
Where τ is the shear stress and γ is the shear strain.
 Example: If a material has a Shear Modulus of 80 GPa and a shear stress of 40
MPa is applied, the shear strain is γ = = = 0.0005 (dimensionless).
6
τ 40×10
9
G 80×10

3. Bulk Modulus (K):

Definition: Describes how incompressible a material is. It measures the
material's response to uniform pressure.
Formula: K = ΔP

ΔV /V

Where ΔP is the change in pressure and ΔV /V is the fractional change in

volume.
Example: For a material with a Bulk Modulus of 150 GPa, if it is subjected to
a pressure increase of 50 MPa, the volume change is
(dimensionless).
6
ΔV ΔP 50×10 −4
= = = 3.33 × 10
9
V K 150×10

Memorize:
Young's Modulus (E): E =
σ

Shear Modulus (G): G = τ

Bulk Modulus (K): K = ΔP

ΔV /V

Stress
Stress (σ) measures the average force per unit area of a surface within a
deformable body
Stress: birim alana düşen kuvvet. basınçtan farkı deforme edebilemsi

F
σ =
A

Stresin birimi N/m2 (newton metre kare)

Strain, stresin sonucu oluşan zorlanma. Birimi yok. Stress is directly
proportional to strain

Tension
Tension-> gerilim

🚨Compression & Stretching

Compression = sıkışma Stretching = uzama
Young’s modulus ile hesaplanıyor

🚨Shear & Torsion

Shear = kesme Torsion = burkulma
Shear modulus ile hesaplanıyor

5 - Force & Inertia (Newton special episode)

Force
 Tanım: Force is a vector quantity characterized by its direction and
magnitude. While forces themselves are not directly visible, their effects on
objects are observable.
Force = Mass × acceleration | F = m × a Unit is Newton

Effects of force

Change in Speed: A force can change the speed of an object. It can accelerate
the object, causing it to move faster, or decelerate it, causing it to slow down.
Change in Movement Direction: A force can alter the direction of an object’s
motion. If an object is initially moving in a certain direction, the application
of a force can make it change its path.
Change in Shape: A force can cause a temporary or permanent change in an
object’s shape. When forces are applied to deformable materials, they can
stretch, compress, or twist the object.

Newton
First Law: Inertia
Newton's First law: eylemsizlik
Tanım:an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will
continue to move
Atalet momentumu, eylemsizliği sürdürme isteği. Birimi Kg ve kütle ile
orantılı. Sadece durma değil olan hareketi devam isteğidirde. Ani fren yapınca
öne doğru fırlama gibi düşün

Second law
an object under the influence of a force will accelerate -> F = m × a or ->
F
a =
m

Third Law: Etki Tepki

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Work
Bir cismi d mesafe götürme yeteneği. Symbol W. The Joule (J) is the SI unit of
work.
One Joule is the work done by a force of one Newton acting through a distance
of one metre.
1 Newton/metre = 1 Joule

Work = f orce (F) × distance(d)

IMPORTANT: aslında Work = (mass (m) × acceleration(a)) × distance(d)

eğer işin içinde açı giriyorsa -> W = F × d × cosθ

 work is a scalar quantity, as it only describes the energy transfer from one
form to another and does not convey directional information.

The Work-Energy Theorem and Kinetic Energy

kütle çarpı hızın karesi / 2 -> Cismin kinetik enerjisini verir.

1 2
KE = mv
2

like work, is a scalar quantity. Work gibi ama değişimini verir "Delta"
E1 − E = E
0 yani "W"
d

Gravitational Potential Energy

Yüksekten serbest düşen cisim -> Wgravity = m × g × height(displacement)

m x g oldu çünkü "serbest düştü". tek arselayon kaynağı yer çekimi ivmesi

Potantial Energy

Epot = m × g × height

The Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The total mechanical energy (E = E + E ) of an object remains constant as

kin pot

the object moves, provided that the net work done by external forces is zero.

The Impulse-Momentum Theorem

kuvvetin, etki ettiği sürenin ve ortaya çıkan hız veya momentum değişikliği
arasındaki ilişkiyi gösterir.
Teorem formülü : F ⋅ Δt = m ⋅ Δv (v hız & t time)
Alt komponentleri ->
birinci kısmı : I mpulse = F ⋅ Δt -> Unit Newton/sec (Impulse = change in
momentum)
ikinci kısmı : Momentum p = m ⋅ v

The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

Dışarıdan bir etki yoksa momentum kaybolmaz.(izole bir sistemde)

6 - Linear Movement
Displacement
Δx = x - x0 -> yer değiştirme.
Dikkat! Yer değiştirme ile toplam kat edilen mesafe farklı olabilir! Derste
konuşuldu

Speed & Average Velocity

 Speed = birim zamanda kat edilen mesafe v =
x

t
Unit is meter/second
Aveage speed -> hız zaman zaman azalıyor yükseliyorsa v =
Δx

Δt
=
x−x0

t−t0

🚨 Acceleration
Acceleration = hızlanma / ivmelenme
Formül?
Equations For Constant Acceleration ?

7 - Static & Kinetic Friction

Static Friction
Cismin hareket etmemesi sağlayan sürtünme bu. Cismin masadan düşmeden
durabilmesi gibi. Uygulanan kuvvetin önce bunu yenmesi lazım. Intertia + static
friction gibi F static-max

Starting friction

It is present at the instant when a body, which has been at rest, just begins to move
under the application of a force. Sometimes this instant when the body begins to
slide is called “break away”.

Kinetic Friction
hareket halinde uygulanan sürtüme -> Fkinetic = μk × Fn

Dikkat! μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and FN is the magnitude of

the normal force.

Sliding friction

It is present as a body is sliding over another surface. Sliding friction is present

when the surface of the body and the surface on which it slides are moving relative
to each other.

Coefficients of Friction (μ)

Material Starting Sliding
Steel on Steel 0.15 0.09
Steel on Ice 0.03 0.01
Leather on Wood 0.5 0.4
Oak on Oak 0.5 0.3
Rubber on dry Concrete 1 0.7
Rubber on wet Concrete 0.7 0.5

🚨 Free Falling Bodies

?
8 - Rotational Movement
Uniform circular motion -> an object traveling at a constant (uniform) speed
on a circular path.

Centripetal Force:

Direction: Centripetal force acts towards the center of the circular path.
Purpose: It is responsible for keeping an object in circular motion.
Nature: Centripetal force can be provided by various forces like tension,
gravity, friction, or any force directed towards the center.
Centripetal Formula: r -> radius of circular path
2
m⋅v
Fc =
r

Centripetal Acceleration :
2
v
ac =
r

1. Centrifugal Force:
Direction: Centrifugal force is often considered an outward force, acting
away from the center of the circular path.
Existence: In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is often treated as a
pseudo-force that appears when analyzing motion in a rotating reference
frame. In reality, it doesn't originate from an interaction but is a result
of inertia in a non-inertial (accelerating) frame.
Nature: It's more of an apparent force experienced by an object in a rotating
reference frame. It's not a "real" force originating from an interaction.
No Specific Formula: Unlike centripetal force, there's no specific formula
for centrifugal force because, in classical mechanics, it's often considered
as a pseudo-force arising in non-inertial frames.
Examples: In a car turning around a curve, the passengers feel pressed
against the outer side of the car. In this scenario, the term "centrifugal
force" is sometimes used colloquially to describe the feeling, but it's
important to note that it's not an actual force in the scientific sense.

Centrifugal force is pseude force?! -> dışa doğru atma

🚨 9 - Periodic Motion
sarkaç hareketi

Pendular Movement
Vibration
Harmonic Motion
Resonance
Gyroscope
10 - Mechanical Advantage
M echanicalAdvantage = F orceOut÷F orceI n and also
M echanicalAdvantage = DistanceOut÷DistanceI n

Fulcrum -> Pivot noktası

Effort -> Uygulanan güç ve onun noktası
Resistance -> Ölü ağırlık ve onun bulunduğu nokta
Lever -> Kaldıraç
1st class lever -> En klasiği, pivot (fulcrum) orda ağırlık ve kuvvet uçlarda
2st class lever -> Ağırlık ortada, pivot ve kuvvet uçlarda. el arabası gibi,
Nutcracker
3st class lever -> Kuvvet ortada, ağırlık uçta, pivotta uçta. baseball bat
yük x yük kolu = kuvvet x kuvvet kolu
Imporant tip: A chain or belt drive can lose as much as 5% of the power
through the system in friction, heat, deformation, and wear, in which case the
efficiency of the drive is 95%.

🚨 11 - Pressure & Buoyancy

missing

12 - Temperature
Celsius to Fahrenheit
9
F° = × C° + 32
5

Fahrenheit To Celsius
5×F °−32
C° =
9

32F° -> ice point so its 0°C

Kelvin 0° -> -273° C
mercury thermometer range -38,9 C° to 356,9 C° (it boils&freeze)
ethanol thermometer range is from -114,4 C° to 78,37 C°

thermocouple -> generates a voltage, copper and constantan (a copper–nickel alloy)

Thermocouple range -> 2300 °C or as low as -270 °C.

Electrical Resistance Thermometer -> platinium wire, range -270 °C to +700 °C,
electrick resistance changes

#manometer
Measures inner relative pressure of gas/liquids

13 - Heat
What is heat?

Heat is energy that flows from a higher-temperature object to a lower-

temperature object because of the difference in temperatures.
 SI Unit of Heat: joule (J)

Heat Capacity Formula

Q = c × mass × ΔT

Result Unit is J/(kg · K) Joule/(kg · Kelvin)

Spesific heat capacity sorusu vardı DİKKAT

The specific heat capacity is greater for a gas at constant pressure than for
a gas at constant volume.

Stuff Detail
C the specific heat capacity of the substance
m mass of the substanc
ΔT is the change in temperature
Q heat energy

Heat Units
Joule ->
kCal -> One kilocalorie (1 kCal) as the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of water by one Celsius degree.

1kCal = 4,2 kJ or 1 calorie = 4,2 J

Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf​)

The heat energy required or released during the phase change between a solid and a
liquid.

Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv​

):
The heat energy required or released during the phase change between a liquid and a
gas.

Formula
Q = m ⋅ Lf or Q = m ⋅ Lv

L is a substance spesific constant

Lv​ (latent heat of vaporization of water) = 2260 J/g

convection -> direct contact, no material movement. only solids.

conduction -> transfer of heat through the bulk movement of fluids (liquids or gases)
radiation -> transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves

(convection: metal kaşığı tavada bıraktın)

(conduction: ısınan hava yükselir, mass replacement, kaynayan su+benmari)
(radiation : güneş)
Thermal Conduction Formula

(Area×ΔT emprature)×time
Q =
length
Unit is J/(sec x meter x °C)

Thermal expansion formula

ΔL = a × L0 × ΔT emp

a is coefficient of linear expansion.

Common Unit for the Coefficient of Linear Expansion and unit is °C
−1
or 1

°C

bimetallic strip -> brass + steel

Volume expansion formula

ΔV = β × V0 × ΔT emp

β is is the coefficient of volume expansion and unit is °C

−1
or 1

°C

Water max density in 4°C

Water turns to ice (smaller density), its volume expands by 8,3 %

14 - Thermodynamics
0th Law: Thermal equilibrium: Eğer iki sistem her biri üçüncü bir sistemle termal
denge içindeyse, o zaman bu iki sistem birbirleriyle termal denge içindedirler.

0th Law

Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium with a third system* are in

thermal equilibrium with each other. A ↔ C ve B ↔ C ⇒ A ↔ B

0th Example

you are not in thermal equilibrium with the water in Lake Michigan in January.
Just dive into it, and you will find out how quickly your body loses heat to the
frigid water

1th Law
: Enerjinin Korunumu : Bir sistemdeki enerji ne yaratılabilir ne de yok olabilir,
sadece bir formdan diğerine dönüşebilir. Enerji korunur.

ΔU = Uf − U i = Q − W

initial value Ui to a final value of Uf due to heat Q and work W

Q is positive when the system gains heat and negative when it loses heat.
W is positive when work is done by the system and negative when work is done
on the system.
Sistem tarafından iş yapıldığında W pozitif, sistem üzerinde iş yapıldığında
ise negatiftir.
2nd Law
(Entropi/Kaos) Doğal olarak, izole edilmiş bir sistemde entropi (düzensizlik veya
kaos düzeyi) zaman içinde artar. Doğal süreçler genellikle düzensizlik yaratır.

Heat increases -> Entropy increases "flow spontaneously"

Entropy unit ->Joule but not energy itself its about how distrubuted the energy

3rd Law (Düzen)

Bir sistem, sıcaklık mutlak sıfıra (0 Kelvin) yaklaştığında, entropisi minimum olur
ve sistem tamamen düzenli bir yapıya yaklaşır.

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#Isobaric process -> During an isobaric process, the pressure of the system remains
constant, but other thermodynamic properties, such as volume and temperature, may
change

process -> there is no exchange of heat between the system and its
#adiabatic
surroundings. The system is thermally isolated.

process -> thermodynamic process during which the temperature of a

#isothermal
system remains constant.changes in other thermodynamic properties, such as pressure
and volume, while the temperature remains constant throughout the entire process.

#isochoric process -> volume does not change

15 - Ideal Gas Laws & Boyle and Lussac's Law

Ideal Gas law
pV = nRT

n -> number of moles

T -> Kelvin the temperature
V -> volume
p -> Pressure
R -> Ideal gas constant

Boyle's Law
Relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas when the temperature remains
constant.

Pressure rises, volume decreases.

P1 ⋅ V1 = P2 ⋅ V2

Lussac Law
describes the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas at constant
volume.

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

Charles Law
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

T
P ⋅ V = k ⋅ ( )
T0

Otto Cycle Special

1. Intake Stroke:
Otto Cycle Stage: Isothermal Compression
Description: The intake stroke involves the opening of the intake valve,
allowing the air-fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber. The piston
moves downward during this stage.
Otto Cycle Influence: The isothermal compression phase in the Otto Cycle
corresponds to the intake stroke, where the volume increases, and the
pressure remains relatively constant as the air-fuel mixture is drawn into
the cylinder.
2. Compression Stroke:
Otto Cycle Stage: Constant Volume Heat Addition
Description: The intake valve closes, and the piston moves upward,
compressing the air-fuel mixture within the combustion chamber.
Otto Cycle Influence: The constant volume heat addition in the Otto Cycle
aligns with the compression stroke of the engine. During this stage, the
temperature and pressure of the compressed mixture increase.
3. Power Stroke:
Otto Cycle Stage: Isentropic Expansion
Description: The compressed and ignited air-fuel mixture undergoes rapid
expansion, forcing the piston downward and generating mechanical work.
Otto Cycle Influence: The isentropic expansion phase in the Otto Cycle
corresponds to the power stroke, where the energy released during combustion
is converted into mechanical work, propelling the engine.
4. Exhaust Stroke:
Otto Cycle Stage: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
Description: The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves upward to expel
the burned gases from the combustion chamber.
Otto Cycle Influence: The constant volume heat rejection in the Otto Cycle
aligns with the exhaust stroke. During this stage, the exhaust gases are
expelled, and the cylinder volume remains relatively constant.

16 - Light
Speed of Light (Under vacuum) -> 8
3, 00 ⋅ 10
 Only waves with frequencies between about 14
4, 0×10 Hz and 1
7, 9×10 4 Hz are
perceived by the human eye as visible light.
Visible light as wavelength in nanometer -> btw IRDA 750 nm and 380 nm
ultraviolet

The multimode fiber with losses under 20 dB/km and a high silica-core multimode
optical fiber with 4dB/ km minimum attenuation (loss). Currently, multimode fibers
can have losses as low as 0,5 dB/km at wavelengths around 1300 nm.

Another advantage is that multimode fibers permit the use of light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). Single mode fibers typically must use laser diodes. LEDs are cheaper, less
complex, and last longer. LEDs are preferred for most applications.

Fiber laser -> 1300 nm. (kızılötesi)

Single mode loss -> 0,25 dB/km
Multi mode loss -> 0,5 dB/km
Multi mode can use LED instead of laser (LED is cheap and Light Emitter Diodes )

Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): SMF has a smaller core diameter, typically around 9
micrometers. This allows only a single mode or ray of light to be transmitted
through the core.
Single mode diameter equals wavelength
Multimode Fiber (MMF): MMF has a larger core diameter, usually ranging from 50 to
62.5 micrometers. It enables the transmission of multiple modes or rays of light
simultaneously.
Multimode diameter is greater than wavelength
Type of cable (not the diameter) - single mode, multimode or graded index etc.
is chosen for its attenuation and hence length.
Speed of fiberoptic -> n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in
substance. 1.5 = 200m/ms

Modal(Intermodal) dispersion

In multimode fiber (MMF), where multiple modes or rays of light can propagate
simultaneously, modal dispersion can occur. This dispersion limits the usable
bandwidth by causing the different modes to arrive at the receiver at slightly
different times. This is a significant factor in determining the maximum
achievable data rate.

A Concave mirror is used in headlights.

Odaklanma gereken yerde kullanılıyor.

In a Convex mirror, image is always virtual

Convex = izafi/virtual. Aynanın arkasında oluşanların hepsi izafidir?

In a concave only object is in focal point -> Virtual Image

 Concave image her zaman gerçek ancak obje odak noktasının içindeyse izafi

Converging (Concave) lens -> ortası kabarık, kenarları ince , image virtual
Divergent(Convex) lens -> ortası çukur, kenarları kalın

Diamond has the highest refractive index. Note: 4 °C. water is more dense than
ice so has greater refractive index.

#graded-index
A fibre optic with a different refractive index across its core diameter is a 'graded
index'.
#step-index
A varying refractive index is either 'step index' or 'graded index'.
#passive-filter
A 'passive filter' simply sorts out and/or blocks certain wavelengths.

#active-filter
An 'active filter' will catch certain wavelengths and convert them to other
wavelength.
#critic-angle
refers to the specific angle of incidence at which light, traveling from one medium
to another, is refracted at an angle of 90 degrees, typically occurs from a medium
with a higher refractive index to a medium with a lower refractive index.

17 - Wave
Wave has two features -> is a traveling disturbance + carries energy from
place to place.

Two types of wave -> #longitudinal and #transverse

#Transverse -> Perpendicular movement, peaks, ups/downs

#Longitudinal -> Changes only longitudinal axis. sıklaşıyor, yada seyreleşiyor.
Features of Wave
#Wave-length -> horizontal distance btw. two crest. Start from zero, go 1/-1 and
return back zero. Bir tam cycle
 vspeed
λwavelength =
f requency

#Amplitude -> Vertical distance btw. tip of crest and zero (no disturbance point)
#Period -> Time required for one complete cycle. Zero->Up->Zero->Down->Zero. Also
time for travel wavelength.
#Frequency -> The frequency is the number of cycles per second that passes by a
given location. f = 1

time

#Pitch -> Same thing with frequency

17 - Wave
1. A wave is a traveling disturbance.
2. A wave carries energy from place to place.
3. Two basic types of waves, transverse and longitudinal
4. A #transverse wave is one in which the disturbance occurs perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave. Radio waves, light waves, and microwaves are
transverse waves. Transverse waves also travel on the strings of instruments such
as guitars and banjos
5. A #longitudinal wave is one in which the disturbance occurs parallel to the line
of travel of the wave.
6. Periodic waves: they consist of cycles or patterns that are produced over and
over again by the source.
7. A wave is a series of many cycles.
8. The #amplitude is the distance between a crest, or highest point on the wave
pattern, and the undisturbed position; it is also the distance between a trough,
or lowest point on the wave pattern, and the undisturbed position.
9. The #wave-length 𝜆 is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave. The wave-
length is also the horizontal distance between two successive crests, two
successive troughs, or any two successive equivalent points on the waves.
10. The #period T is the time required for one complete up/down cycle, just as it
is for an object vibrating on a spring. The period T is related to the
#frequency f, just as it is for any example of simple harmonic motion
11. #Loudness is an attribute of sound that depends primarily on the amplitude of
the wave: the larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.

Trick

The speed of sound is influenced by temperature. In general, sound travels

faster in warmer air than in colder air. This is because the speed of sound is
directly proportional to the square root of the temperature.

Trick

Sound travels slowest in gases, faster in liquids, and fastest in solids.

Trick
 When a sound wave transitions from one medium to another, such as from air to
water, its speed changes, but the frequency remains constant.

Standing & Traveling Waves

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Traveling -> Faz farkı var

Standing -> Amplitude değişimi var

Transverse
 #nodes -> Zero position, düğüm noktası gibi
#antinodes -> -1 or +1 positions, daha lenger, gevşek titreşimli.

Harmonics
The nodes are places that do not vibrate at all, and the antinodes are places
where maximum vibration occurs.

Longitudinal
Speed Of Sound
In general, sound travels slowest in gases, faster in liquids, and fastest in solids.

Sound travels more than four times faster in water and more than seventeen times
faster in steel than it does in air.

Gas
Near room temperature, the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s (767 mi/h)

γheat capacityKconstantTtemperature in Kelvin

v = √
maverage mass of molecule

Liquid
βadiabatic bulk modulus
v = √
density

Solid
γYoungs Modulus
v = √
density

Intensity Of Sound
P ower(W )
Iintensity = 2
Area(m )

Decibel (dB)
 Decibel is comparison btw. two intensity (watt/m2). So it's a ratio. like the
radian, is dimensionless
I1
βdecibel = 10log ( )
I0

Doppler Effect
When it's coming closer -> pitch getting higher
When it's going away -> pitch (frequency) drops