MATTER

Nature of Matter

All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. A molecule is defined

as the smallest particle that any substance can be reduced to and still retain
the unique properties of the original substance from which it can still be
identified.

These molecules are packed tightly together so that substances appear as

solids, liquids or gases. Forces of attraction and repulsion exist between all
molecules and these forces which are electro-magnetic, vary with the state in
which the substance exists. Molecules of all matter are in constant motion, the
amount of motion or vibration is dependent on the temperature.

In a solid the molecules are packed closely together and vibration is in a fixed
position, held there by strong bonding forces. This forms a rigid intermolecular
structure. A solid, therefore, holds its shape and volume, changing size only
with temperature changes (or large external forces).

In liquids the motion of molecules is much greater and this prevents any
permanent intermolecular structure from occurring. However, temporary
bonds are formed and broken continually between molecules. These bonds
prevent the molecules from totally moving apart so that a liquid will occupy, to
the extent of it's volume, the shape of the container into which it is poured.

In a gas, the molecules are spaced widely apart, the force of attraction is so
small that they continue to drift apart with relative ease, occupying the
complete volume of the container that the gas is in.

Between molecules, whether in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, an empty space

exists. This space allows materials to be compressed, forcing the molecules to
move closer together and occupying a smaller volume. As the volume is
gradually reduced the compressive force required has to increase providing
evidence of a repulsive force existing between molecules.

On the other hand, to produce a gradual extension of a solid bar, for example,
an increasing tensile or stretching force would have to be applied, indicating
that a force of attraction is also present between molecules.

The force that holds molecules of one particular substance together is called a
COHESIVE force. Where molecules of different substances are held together
the force is known as an ADHESIVE force.
Atomic Structure

Molecules are constructed of even smaller particles called ATOMS. The size of
an atom is small and may be defined as being the smallest particle that any
substance can chemically be broken down to. The size of an atom is difficult to
comprehend - a fine grain of salt would contain about a million, million, million
(1018) of them.

Even at this size research has lead to the discovery that the atom itself is made
up of many smaller particles. Of these, three are considered as being
fundamental in its construction. These are the electron, the proton and the
neutron.

An atom consists largely of empty space. At its centre is the nucleus, which is
formed from closely packed protons and neutrons. Surrounding this is a
'cloud' of orbiting electrons (figure 1) circulating around it in all directions.

The size of the proton and neutron are very similar being about 1.6 x lO24g
and 1.7 x lO 24 g respectively, whereas the electron is about 1/2000th times as
small, it's mass being about 9 x 10'31g. Theory suggests that binding forces'
hold the nucleus together. These forces are very strong but of short range and
act only within the nucleus.

Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged
particles, whilst the neutron, as it's name suggests is neither positive or
negative but neutral. As a whole, the atom, is seen from outside as having no
electrical charge.

The positive charge on the nucleus being cancelled by the negative charge of
the orbiting electron. It follows that there must be as many electrons orbiting
the nucleus as there are protons within the nucleus so as to keep its charge
neutral.
Where the molecules of a substance consists of only one type of atom, the
substance is classified as an element. Carbon, gold, iron, mercury, oxygen and
hydrogen are all examples of elements. There are more than one hundred
elements, and the most recent ones discovered are unstable and change
spontaneously into other known elements.

The abundance of materials in the world varies considerably with fewer than
ten elements making up 98% of the total.

All atoms of a particular element contain a definite number of protons and

subsequent electrons. Different elements will contain different numbers of
protons in the nucleus. It is the number of protons in an atom that provide the
ATOMIC NUMBER, and the total mass of all the sub-atomic particles (protons,
neutrons and electrons) that provide a measure of the ATOMIC WEIGHT.

Atomic weight is now often referred to as RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS. Forms of

an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different
relative atomic masses, as a result of different numbers of neutrons in the
nucleus, are called ISOTOPES.

Atomic weights are comparative. Originally the weight of the hydrogen atom
was taken as 1 and the weights of all other atoms made relative to it. Atomic
weights are now based on a value of 12, based on carbon 12, which has six
neutrons and six protons. On this comparative scale, hydrogen has an atomic
weight of 1.008.

MASS NUMBER is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, -
each being taken as a unit of mass. Both protons and neutrons are called
nucleons and the mass number is sometimes called the NUCLEON NUMBER.
The way in which the electrons orbit the nucleus follows a fairly rigid pattern
and may be envisaged as occupying orbital layers or spherical shells. Each
shell can only contain a specific number of electrons with the maximum
theoretical number related to the formula 2n 2 . Where n is the first quantum
number and noting that the outer shell can only contain a maximum of 8
electrons anyway.

Figure 2 shows the theoretical maximum number of electrons in each of the

shells that surround the nucleus. In practice many atoms do not reach this
number.

The gap between each shell is not constant but reduces as the distance
increases from the nucleus with the outer electrons being called VALANCE
electrons.

Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell is shown in
the following table. (The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom).

The electrons (or electron) making up the outermost shell are called valence
electrons, and these being furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus are
least tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active
part in electrical conduction.

Figure 3 shows an atom of hydrogen and figure 4 shows an atom of helium,

both very light gases. Figures 5 and 6 show atoms of silicon and germanium
respectively, two very7 important elements in the manufacture of transistors,
both having four valance electrons.
Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because
electrons and protons are present in equal numbers. An atom can become
positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added. When
an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more protons
than electrons), and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an electron it
becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative ion.
An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron.

Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties.

One of these is that some of the electrons in the outer shells are so loosely tied
to the nucleus that they are effectively floating free and move easily from one
atom to another. Normally their movement is random, but by applying an
exterior electrical force (such as that provided by a battery or generator) they
can all be made to move in the same direction.

When all the electrons move in one direction only then the current is known as
Direct Current (dc) - as when a battery is used to provide the electrical force
(voltage). When the electrons are moved forwards and backwards (as when an
alternator/generator is used) then the current is called Alternating Current
(ac). Ac current usually has a frequency (on aircraft) of 400 Hz, though some
frequency wild systems do exist.

This orderly movement of electrons is called current. Metals which easily

permit the orderly movement of electrons are called conductors eg, copper,
aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze and gold.

In other materials the electrons are held firmly in their outer shells. In these
materials it is almost impossible to induce an orderly movement of electrons
and they are classified as non-conductors, or insulators, eg: glass, rubber,
plastic, air, wood and mica.

The family of elements called semiconductors sometimes behave like

conductors and sometimes like insulators. Typical materials are silicon and -
germanium.
These materials have four valence electrons, each atom shares its electrons
with adjacent atoms to form a strongly bonded structure called a crystal
lattice. The freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in their pure state
in semiconductors are insulators.

However, electron movement can be achieved by heating, as the temperature

rises the electrons become more agitated and leave their orbits and if a voltage
is placed across the material electron movement occurs.

This is known as "intrinsic" conduction. Current causes heat which causes

more conduction and this can continue until breakdown occurs, known as
"thermal runaway".

Another way to improve the conductivity is by "doping", of a tiny amount of

another element. This is introduced into the crystal lattice structure which
improves the conductivity. More detail of this in Module 4 study books i.i this
series.

Chemical Reactions

If the third shell is an outer shell it can only accommodate 8 electrons, but if
covered by a fourth shell it can accommodate 18 electrons. If the outermost
shell is either completely filled or holds 8 electrons then the element is
chemically un-reactive, ie it will not combine chemically with any other
element. Thus if we consider a substance such as Neon (Ne), atomic number
10, then 2 electrons will occupy the inner shell and 8 electrons the outer shell.
Neon is an un-reactive gas.
Sodium (Na), having an atomic number of 11, has 2 electrons occupying the
inner shell, 8 in the second shell but only 1 electron in the third (outer shell), a
deficiency of 7 electrons in this shell.

Chlorine (Cl) has an atomic number of 17, thus the shells have 2, 8 and 7
electrons respectively with a deficiency of 1 electron in the other shell. These
last two elements, sodium and chlorine, will readily combine to form the
COMPOUND sodium chloride (NaCl), sea salt, with the outer shell of the
chlorine readily accepting the single electron of the sodium outer shell and in
doing so completing its outer shell.

Chemical reactions are concerned with the loss or gain of electrons in the outer
shells and as the example above has shown, elements with deficiencies in their
outer shells are chemically very active and form compounds very easily.

A COMPOUND is defined as the chemical combination of two or more elements

and by chemical means can be separated back into their original elements.

The third way in which a substance can exist is as a mixture - remembering

the other two ways are as an element or a compound.

In a mixture, substances exist side by side without combining chemically. Air

is a good example of a mixture. Air consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen
(23% oxygen and 77% nitrogen approximately my mass).

A mixture is often recognised by the fact that a physical process may be used
to separate it back to its original constituent parts. In a reaction a chemical -
compound is either formed by the combination of elements or broken up
(decomposed) into its separate elements. To represent such a process a
chemical equation is used.

It is worth memorising the more common elements, and those associated with
combustion (in the following table), as these are used in the writing and
balancing of chemical equations.
The subscript number (eg the 2 in Oa) associated with some of the elements
denotes the number of atoms contained in a single molecule of the substance.
Thus carbon C contains a single atom whilst a molecule of hydrogen H2 is
formed by 2 hydrogen atoms.

Note. The subscript \ as in Ci is understood but rarely used.

The molecular mass is the total atomic mass of all the atoms that form the
molecule. Thus a molecule of oxygen, which consists of 2 atoms in its natural
state, has a molecular mass of 32 ie 2 x 16.

In a compound the molecular mass is determined from the addition of the

atomic masses of the individual masses concerned.

Consider a molecule of water chemical symbol PbO. This is a compound, a

single molecule of which is made up of 3 atoms, one of oxygen and two of
hydrogen. Its molecular mass is thus 18 or [(2 x 1) + 16].

However, as a chemical formula, it is not possible to show this as

since oxygen on its own can only exist naturally in its molecular form with 2
atoms, ie 02-

Thus the equation has to be written as

in order to balance.

In other words 2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 2 molecules

of Water.

In terms of the atomic masses the equation may be written as

ie, both sides of the equation are the same and the equation balances.

In the second example C + C>2 = CC>2, 1 molecule of carbon is chemically

combined with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 1 molecule of carbon dioxide.

In this form the chemical equation balances as shown below, where the
comparison of the atomic masses is made.
The final examples show, respectively, the chemical equations involved in the
production of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.

Check yourself that these two equations balance by considering the atomic
masses.

In all the preceding equations, remember that:

(a) There must be the same number of atoms on both sides of the
equation.

(b) The atomic mass is the same on each side of the equation.

(c) It is not necessary for the same number of molecules to occur on

each side of the equation.

(d) The addition sign on each in the equation indicates 'chemically

combining with' and is not a mathematical function as such.

Note. The process of division or decomposition of a substance into its

constituent parts to determine the type of constituents present is called
analysis. Synthesis is the opposite process - ie the process of producing a
compound by a chemical reaction from commonly available materials.

Matter, as previously stated, exists as a solid, liquid or gas. You will remember
that in a solid the molecules are held in fixed positions about which they
vibrate. By raising the temperature of the solid the effect is to increase this
vibration, (that is to increase the kinetic or movement energy of the molecule).
If the temperature continues to be increased the bonds acting between the
molecules become less effective and the molecules move away from their fixed
positions. The substance subsequently becomes a liquid.

Increasing the temperature still further gives the molecules even more energy
so that a second point is reached where the bonds of attraction no longer have
the strength to restrain the molecules, and they leave the liquid to form a gas.

Changes of state whether from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas, take place
at constant temperature. This is because the energy absorbed during this
phase is used up in breaking down the bonds of attraction.
The heat required to change the state of solid to liquid is known as the latent
heat of fusion', and that from liquid to gas as 'the latent heat of vaporisation'.
Where energy absorbed produces a change in temperature, this is referred to
as 'Sensible Heat'.

The graph below shows the changes that occur as ice (below 0°C) is converted
into steam.

Sensible heat and Latent heat, may often be referred to as Enthalpy and
Specific Enthalpy as change of phase' respectively.
 MECHANICS

STATICS

Force

If we want to bend, stretch, compress, twist or break a body (say a piece of

metal), then we must apply a force. The application of a force is also necessary
to produce movement of a static body and to produce acceleration, slow down
(decelerate) or change the direction of a moving body. Whenever we consider a
force we see it in terms of its effect on the body to which it is applied. In this
way a force is defined as "that which changes or attempts to change the state
of rest of a body or of its state of uniform motion in a straight line."

In all its forms, a force has units of Newtons (N). (The Newton is the SI unit of
force and named after Sir Isaac Newton. It is quite small - if a small apple is
placed on the hand it will exert a force of about 1 Newton towards the earth).

Moment of a Force

A force can also be used to produce rotation, as occurs when opening a door.
Such motion does require the door to be pivoted (hinged) at some position and
the force to be applied at some distance from the pivot.
This turning effect of the force is known as 'the moment of the force, and its
magnitude is determined from the product of the force and the distance from
the hinge or pivot. However, the distance must be the perpendicular distance
from the pivot (ie the distance measured at right angles to the force) to the line
of action of the force. Referring to figure 10.

Moment (of the = Magnitude of the force x Perpendicular distance

force) Nm (N) between pivot and line of
action of the force (m)

Applying the force in such a way that its line of action passes through the pivot
will not produce a turning effect. Both force and distance are necessary to
produce a moment.
Equilibrium

QUESTION: Can you define equilibrium? (5 mins)

ANSWER: Equilibrium is where all the forces and all the moments acting on a
body cancel each other out and the net effect on the body is zero.
In other words it will not move if it is in a state of rest, and if in
motion it will not slow-down or accelerate or change direction

The state of equilibrium is very important in engineering situations. It provides

stability in practice and a means of solving problems in theory.

Consider the beam, shown below in figure 13. It is supported at a single point, -
which also acts as a pivot. Two forces PI and PI are situated each side of the
pivot at distances Si and 82 respectively.

The product P2 x 82 produces a clockwise moment about the pivot and the
product PI x Si produces an anti-clockwise moment about the pivot. For the
equilibrium of rotation (ie, no rotation occurs) these two moments must be
equal, ie Pi X Si = P2 X S2
Although rotation is now prevented, the beam still has the opportunity to move
up or down, ie translate, hence for equilibrium of translation, the sum of the
downward forces must be balanced by the upward force (reaction force)
supplied by the pivot, as shown below figure 14.

Once these two conditions of rotation and translation have been satisfied then
the beam can be said to be in a state of equilibrium.

If more than two forces are involved then for equilibrium of rotation:

The sum of the clockwise moments = the sum of the anti-clockwise moments.

Lets now consider some numerical examples.

Example 1 In this case the requirement is to balance the arrangement, by

determining the unknown force (P).
 Taking moments about the pivot. For equilibrium of rotation:

Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments

( P X 6m) + ( 1 N X 2m) = (2N X 2m) + (5N X 4m)
6P + 2 = 4 + 20
6P = 24-2
6P = 22
P = 227 = 32N
/6 3

Example 2. A uniform bar AB, 7m long has forces of:

25N at a point 0.5m from A

12N at a point 3.0m from A
and 12N at a point 1.0m from B, applied to it.

Find the position of the pivot which will allow the beam to balance, ie be in a
state of equilibrium (ignore the mass of the beam).

Let the pivot be positioned on the beam at a distance x from end A.

From equilibrium of translation, we know that the reaction force at the pivot
must equal the sum of the downward forces, ie 49N.

Taking moments about A,

for equilibrium of rotation:

Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments

As the last example shows, the point chosen about which the moments are
taken, can be any point on the beam, provided that the beam is in equilibrium.

In the next example, the weight of the beam is to be taken into consideration.
Of course each part of the beam has its own mass and weight, but there is a
point where all the mass or weight appears concentrated. This point, the half-
way point on a uniform beam, is known as it's 'centre of gravity' (C of G). It is
the point, at which, if supported by a single support, the beam on its own
would balance.

Example 3 A uniform beam AB, 4m long and 200N weight, has forces of 120N
and 20N applied respectively to its ends A and B. Find the point about which
the beam will balance.
The weight of the beam alone would act at a point 2m from either A or B ie, the
mid-position and its centre of gravity.

Let the balance point be at a distance x. from end A.

Couple

In some situations, for example the winding up of a clockwork mechanism, the

forces that are applied to the winding key are equal in magnitude, but opposite
in sense.

In this case the resultant force on the pivot is zero and there is only pure
rotation present with no tendency for the pivot to move sideways. The value of
the resultant moment (P X d) produces rotation.

Such an arrangement of forces is called a 'COUPLE' and the resultant moment •

of a couple is called a TORQUE.
 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

All quantities may be described as being either 'scalar' or Vector'.

A scalar quantity has magnitude only and nothing else is required in defining
it. As such, it may be represented by the length of a straight line drawn to
some scale.

Examples of scalar quantities include, time, mass, temperature and speed.

Thus a time interval of 20 seconds may be represented as:

using a scale of 1cm = 2 seconds, and a temperature of 60°C may be

represented as:

using a scale of 1cm = 10°C

A sector quantity on the other hand, not only possesses magnitude but also
direction and sense.

Examples of vector quantities include, force, velocity and acceleration.

The force of 5N applied to a body as shown below has all the three
requirements for it to be represented as a vector - a straight line, the length of
which represents magnitude, drawn at an angle, representing direction and
including an arrow-head showing how it is applied, ie it's sense - up or down.

Vector quantities have the advantage over scalar quantities in that they can be
added graphically, resulting in a simplification of the problem.
Consider now a situation in which two forces are applied to a body, as shown
below figure 21. The question is: In which direction does the body move and
with what force?

It is unimportant as to which force is the first to be drawn as a vector, but

which ever one is chosen, the next vector must be added to it ie, the second
vector starts where the first ends.

Using a scale of 1cm = 2N and starting with the 20N force.

A line joining the start to the end point of the diagram is a vector that
represents the result of the combine forces acting on the body. It's magnitude,
using the drawing scale, is found from its length and its direction found by
using a protractor and measuring the angle it makes with the horizontal.

The RESULTANT is the name given to this vector and it represents the single
force that replaces the original force system and yet has the same effect on the
body.
Often a single force is required to hold the original system of forces in
equilibrium. This force is known as the EQUILIBRANT. It is equal in
magnitude to the resultant but it is opposite in sense, as shown below in
figure 24. Thus to hold the original force arrangement in equilibrium, the
equilibrant is required as shown in figure 25.
It is worth noting that, as shown above, for a system under the action of three
co-planar forces to be in a state of equilibrium, then those forces must pass
through a common point (ie, the forces must be con-current), and when
represented as vectors and drawn in order, they must form a closed triangle.
This is known as the 'triangle offerees'. (Co-planar means on the same plane)

Using vector addition systems with more than three forces can be solved in a
similar way. Consider the forces acting on the body shown below. Which way is
the body likely to move? In other words what is the resultant?

You can start with any force, but in the vector diagram above the vertical 2N
force is used as the start. It is drawn accurately to scale vertically, then the
next force (5N) is taken and drawn horizontally, then the 3N force is drawn to
scale at the correct angle, then the 2N force and finally the ION force.

From the beginning of the vector diagram to where the ION force finishes is the
resultant. This represents the direction and the magnitude of the force that
could replace all the others with the same result.
Note that a vector component at 90° to its original is sometimes referred to as
the quadrature component.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity (C of G) is defined as the point where all the mass of a
body appears to be concentrated. In a gravitational field this is also the point
where all the weight appears to act, no matter what attitude the body is in.
The word 'appears' is important since with some hollow shapes the centre of
gravity occurs in space (with a horse-shoe for example the C of G is in the
space between the two sides of the shoe).
The centre of gravity should not be confused with the centre of area which is
known as a CENTROID. For a body to posses a centre of gravity it must have a
volume ie, it must be three dimensional. An area is only two-dimensional and
as such cannot posses mass. Figure 27 shows some examples giving the
location of the centre of gravity within the body of common shapes.

For comparison, figure 28 shows the location of the centroid of some common
shapes.

The location of the centre of gravity of an aircraft is of particular importance,

and is obtained by using moments, as can be seen in the following example.

A small aircraft has a total weight of 70kN (figure 29). Its' nose wheel is
positioned 3 metres in front of the main wheels. Determine the longitudinal
position of its centre of gravity from the nose wheel if the load on the main
wheels is 60kN.

Let the C of G be x metres from the nose wheel centre line along the aircraft's
longitudinal axis.
As has been stated previously, the centre of gravity is a balancing point. So
considering the aircraft as a simple beam if it was to be supported at this point
an upward reaction equal to its total weight would be necessary to provide
equilibrium of translation.

In this example the centre of gravity was found along the longitudinal axis.
However, its location within the body of the aircraft would require additional
moments to be taken along its lateral axis as well as its vertical axis. In other
words the actual centre of gravity requires three planes to be considered, the
longitudinal, lateral and vertical.

In reality the longitudinal is the one that is calculated when weighing an

aircraft with a tolerance allowed for the lateral position (taken as a difference
between the weight recordings of the port and starboard weighing devices). It is
rare for the vertical position to be considered by the aircraft maintenance
engineer.

QUESTION: Define the terms longitudinal, lateral and vertical axes (10 mins).
ANSWER: These are all straight imaginary- lines running through the
aircraft's C of G all at right angles to each other. The longitudinal
one runs from nose to tail, the lateral one runs from wing tip to
wing tip (or parallel to a line running from wing tip to wing tip),
and the vertical line runs vertically through the other two.

DENSITY

Density is defined as "the mass per unit volume" and is the amount of matter
that can be 'packed' into a specified volume. The more matter than can be
'packed in', the greater the density. Density is given the symbol p ' (rho).

The density of a given body is not a fixed quantity and will change with any
change in volume of the body resulting from a temperature rise or fall. The
density of gases are particularly susceptible to change either as a result of
pressure changes and/or temperature changes.

In general we are looking for high density materials for such things as mass
balance weights in flying control surfaces etc. Depleted uranium (density
19,000 kg/m 3 ) was used for this purpose until safety fears made it
unacceptable, but steel, lead and titanium is still used. Low density materials
are used for cores of composite sandwich construction such as micro-balloons,
aluminium or composite honey comb etc (density under 100 kg/m 3 .
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Whenever a force is applied to a solid, deformation takes place. Sometimes this

deformation is permanent as in the case when bending locking wire.
Sometimes the deformation is temporary and on removal of the force the solid
returns to its original shape eg, when the deflection force is removed from a
spring. When the deformation of the material is temporary the material is said
to be elastic and the response of the material is said to be an elastic response.

The response of a material to the application of a force depends upon the size
and direction of the force and the period of time during which it acts, the type
of material and the area on which the force acts.

The material attempts to neutralise the applied force by exerting an opposing

force or reaction. If the applied force exceeds the reaction, the material breaks.

With most materials if the applied force is small, then when it is removed the
material behaves elastically. If the force is greater than a certain amount then
the material will change shape permanently.

When a material changes shape either elastically or permanently it is said to

STRAIN.

Tension

If a force tends to stretch the material the force is called a tensile force and the
material is said to be in tension eg, parachute cords, spring balance, lifting
cable, towing arm, flying control cables etc. Structures that are designed to
take tensile loads are called TIES and are usually of small cross-section.

Compression

If a force tends to compress or squeeze a material the force is called a

compressive force, eg legs of a chair, bridge supports, also landing gear legs
when the aircraft is on the ground. Structures that are designed to withstand
compression are called STRUTS and are usually of larger cross-section.

Shear

A material is said to be in shear if the forces applied to it tend to slide one face
of the material over an adjacent face, eg paper failing in shear when cut by
scissors, rivet holding an assembly together (figure 24).
In an aircraft structure it is rare for any one part to have a pure compressive
load or a pure tensile load - the classic case for a pure tensile load is a cable (or
a piece of string). So most load bearing members are subjected to a
combination of tensile, compressive and shear forces. When subjected to all
these forces the structure is called a BEAM. A good example of a beam is the
main spar of the wing of an aircraft (figure 31).

The beam (main spar) is said to be a CANTILEVER BEAM if it is attached at

one end only. Most aircraft wings are attached at the fuselage end only, but
some wings on some small aircraft do have an additional support strut from
the fuselage to the wing which means they are not cantilever.

With the aircraft in the air the lift force will bend the wing upwards putting a
compressive force on the top surface, a tensile force on the bottom and a shear
force in the middle. When on the ground, with the main landing gear near or in
the fuselage, the compressive and tensile forces will be reversed.
Stress

Stress is defined as force per unit area - in the imperial system Ibs force per
square inch (psi), in the SI system it is the Pascal (Pa). A Pascal is defined is 1
Newton per square meter (N/m 2 ). So IPa = I N / m 2 . The Pa is a small unit and
often quoted as kPa or MPa.

It is important to note that the unit of stress is the same as the unit of
pressure.

When a force is applied to a material the material is said to be in a state of

stress. The intensity of this stress will depend on the magnitude and direction
of the applied force and the cross-sectional area of the material withstanding
the force.

For direct tensile or compressive stresses this area is measured at right angles
to the direction of the force.

For sheer stress the area will be of the adjacent faces which the shear force is
tending to slide one over the other.

Strain

When a body is under stress distortion of its shape occurs and this distortion
is called "strain". For a material under tensile or compressive stress the strain
is measured by the ratio:

In the case of shear strain it is not only a change in length that is considered.
Shear stress tends to make one face of the material slide over an adjacent face
as shown in figure 32.

}£

The shear strain is measured by the ratio — where x is the relative movement
]_/

between the top and bottom layers and L is the perpendicular distance between
these surfaces.
Hooks Law

During loading many materials initially behave as if they are elastic, but
become plastic (acquire a permanent deformation) as the load increases. The
connection between load and extension was first made by Robert Hooke in
1676. His law states that 'the extension produced by an elastic material is
directly proportional to the load which produces it'.

This relationship, if represented graphically, produces a straight line graph up

to a certain point, known as 'the Limit of Proportionality', after this the change
in shape is no longer proportional to the load and the graph starts to curve as -
show in figure 27.
The point at which the material ceases to be elastic is known as the 'Elastic
Limit'. Its position varies with the material under test. With some materials it
coincides with the 'Limit of Proportionality', but with others it occurs on the
curved and non-proportional part of the graph. Wherever the elastic limit
occurs, if it is exceeded then the material will never return to its original
length, it will have acquired a permanent set.

If stress is plotted against strain, then the shape of the graph will initially
follow that of the load-extension graph.

Up to the Limit of Proportionality

stress cc strain (x means is proportional to)

This constant 'E' is known as Young's Modulus of Elasticity', and has the same
units as stress ie, Pascals (N/m 2 ). It is a constant for a particular material.
The table below shows some typical values.

QUESTION: A tie rod of rectangular cross-section, 60mm x 10mm and carries a

tensile load of 30kN. Calculate the tensile stress in N/mm 2 .
(10 mins)

QUESTION: What diameter of circular bar is required to carry a load (f) of 38.5
kN if the stress is 40N/mm 2 ?
 FLUIDS AND GASES

PRESSURE

Pressure in everyday life is often interpreted as a steadily applied force,

however, in engineering it is defined as force per unit area, and has a formula

In imperial units it is Ibs per square inch (psi) - used commonly on aircraft,
and in the SI system it is N/m 2 - the Pascal (Pa).

It is interesting to note that there is 6894 Pa to Ipsi. A typical tyre pressure for
a car would be 30 psi - in SI units it would be 206,820 Pa (206.82kPa).

So the Pa is not very big is it?

You will notice that pressure has the same units as those for stress, namely
Pascals (or psi). However, it is likely that you will also come across another
unit of pressure - the bar.

The following conversions are useful as most calculations, in science anyway,

are carried out in Pa.

1 Pascal = 1 N/m 2

and 1 bar = 105 N/m 2

Pressure in fluids is of particular importance. Both liquids and gases are

considered as fluids and as previously stated, a fluid has the ability to flow and
occupy any shape.

Whether in a liquid or gaseous state, certain properties are attributed to fluids

and these are:

(i) the pressure exerted at a point within a fluid is the same in all
directions.

(ii) the pressure exerted by a fluid is at right angles to the surface in

which it is in contact.

(iii) and for all practical purposes the pressure is felt throughout the
fluid without loss.
Practical arrangements that use the transmission of fluid pressure for their
operation often involve linked cylinders as shown in figure 35.

As the piston is moved in, in cylinder 'A', the fluid is pressurised to pressure
'P'. This pressure is transmitted through the fluid so that cylinder 'B' is also
subjected to the same pressure as that in cylinder A.

However, since the area of the piston in cylinder B is much larger than that of
the piston in Cylinder A, the force F exerted by piston B is much larger than
the applied force T at cylinder 'A'.

If the fluid is a liquid, assumed at low pressures to be incompressible, then the

volume displaced at A is the same volume increase in B. The result is a much
smaller movement of the piston in B as compared to the piston movement in A.
Pressure Due to Depth

In fluids, pressure is also related to the depth of the fluid in a gravitational

field. This is evident when considering the depth of the atmosphere which
creates a pressure of approximately 101.3 kN/m 2 (1013.2 mb, or 14.7 psi) at
sea level.

In liquids the pressure created due to depth, is perhaps more obvious, and
many simple pressure measuring instruments make use of this
fact, the mercury in a glass barometer being a good example. This instrument
consists, basically, of a glass tube 1 metre long, and sealed at one end.

By completely immersing it in a bath of mercury all air is expelled. When put

upright, but keeping the open end in the mercury bath, it is seen that the
mercury 7 will fall away a little from the sealed (top end) leaving a Vacuum'. The
column left in the tube is supported by the air pressure acting on the surface
of the mercury in the bath.

The rise and fall of the mercury column, as the air pressure changes, provides
a direct relationship and allows amongst other things, weather predictions to
be made. Low atmospheric pressure usually indicates wet or stormy weather
and high pressure, fine weather.

The formula for calculating pressure due to depth is

The pressure measured from an absolute vacuum is known as 'ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE' whereas all others are called 'GAUGE PRESSURES'.

For example taking a car tyre pressure reading might give a value of SOpsi -
that's the value on the gauge. But the tyre is in an atmospheric pressure of
14.7 psi, so its pressure in relation to vacuum is 30 + 14.7 = 44.7psi.

A reading of gauge pressure may be converted into one of absolute pressure by

simply adding the atmospheric pressure, ie

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = GAUGE PRESSURE + ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Another simple instrument that uses height of a liquid to determine pressure is

the piezometer. This is a tube inserted into the pipe carrying the liquid under
pressure. Liquid will rise up the tube until the pressure due to its height
equals the pressure in the pipe.

Such a piezometer has restrictions in that it can only be used for liquids. For
liquids of low density the height of the measuring tube can also be
inconveniently long.

Example 2. To what height would water rise in a piezometer tube if the gauge
pressure in the pipe was 19.62kN/m 2 ? (Density of water = 1000kg/m3)
The use of a U-tube can overcome the problems associated with the simple
piezometer. Figure 37 shows a U-tube attached to a pipe carrying fluid under
pressure.

The U-tube contains a liquid which will not react with the gas or liquid in the
pipe. The pressure of the fluid in the pipe forces the liquid around the U-tube,
until the height 'h' produces a pressure which equates with the pressure in the
pipe, ie the pressure at x is the same in both branches of the U-tube.

For a gas the pressure at 'x' is considered to be the pressure used to measure
the pressure of a liquid in the pipe, a correction should be made for the
pressure of the liquid column occupying the left hand branch, from 'x' to the
pipe centre.
 BUOYANCY

A body placed in water will either sink or float, but whatever it does, it will
experience an up-thrust equal to the weight of fluid it displaces. This is known
as Archimede's Principle.

With a sinking body the weight of the body is greater than the up-thrust
exerted on it, but with a floating body the up-thrust is equal to its weight. The
resultant force, on the body in this case, is therefore zero.

This is the case of the 'principle of floatation', which sates that a floating body
displaces its own weight of fluid.

This is true, of course, when applied not only to bodies in liquids but also to
bodies in air. A balloon for example in flight displaces its own volume of air
and experiences and up-thrust equal to the weight of air displaced. If it can
reduce its own mass - by reducing the density of the air inside the balloon and
hence reducing its mass - then the balloon will rise.

A value known as 'relative density' or 'specific gravity' is often used when

making comparisons between the density of a substance and the density of
water.

As a formula:
An instrument which makes use of Archimedes Principle and which provides a
direct reading of relative density of liquids is the hydrometer. This instrument
is shown below in figure 39. It consists of a weighted tube calibrated such as
to give a direct reading. It floats upright with the immersed volume
representing the volume of liquid having an equal mass to that of the
hydrometer.

The greater the density of the liquid, the smaller is the volume displaced, and
the hydrometer will ride high.