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M H M MUBASSIR
(MNS, BRACU)
Matter
anything that has a mass and occupies space
 Atom, Element, Compound

All matter ̶ whether element, compound or mixture is composed of extremely small

particles of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions called atoms. A table,
a chair, even you are made up of atoms!

If a substance is made up of only one kind of atoms, it is called element.

If, however it is made up of two or more kinds of atoms joined together in a definite
proportion, it is called a compound.
Electron
An electron is a very light, negatively charged particle that exists in the
region around the atom’s positively charged nucleus.

Discovery: JJ Thomson, 1897

Charge: 1.602 X 10-19 coulombs (C)
Mass: 9.109 X 10-28 g (more than 1800 times smaller than the mass of the lightest
atom (hydrogen)
Atomic number
It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

The number of protons and electrons are equal in an atom as they are electrically neutral. So it can also be defined by the total
number of electrons in the atom.

Atomic mass or mass number

It is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

Nuclide
Nuclide is an atom characterized by definite atomic number and mass number.
The symbol for naturally occurring sodium nuclide is as follows:

Here, the atomic number is written as subscript and mass number is written as superscript. Atomic number of Na is 11, that is
Na has 11 proton. As the number of proton and electron in an atom is equal, so Na has 11 electron. The number of neutron in
Na is = 23 – 11 = 12
Isotope
each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an
element.
Isobar
Isobars are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements that have the same number of nucleons. Correspondingly,
isobars differ in atomic number (or number of protons) but have the same mass number.
 Dalton’s atomic theory
Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two millennia before
the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John Dalton
(1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic theory remains valid in modern
chemical thought. Dalton based his theory on two laws: the law of conservation of mass and
the law of constant composition.
The  law of conservation of mass  says that matter is not created or destroyed in a closed system. That
means if we have a chemical reaction, the amount of each element must be the same in the starting materials and the
products. We use the law of conservation of mass every time we balance equations!

The  law of constant composition says that a pure compound will always have the same proportion of
the same elements.

Any water molecule is always made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom in a 2:1 ratio. If we look at the relative masses of oxygen and hydrogen
in a water molecule, we see that 94% of the mass of a water molecule is accounted for by oxygen and the remaining 6% is the mass of hydrogen. This mass
proportion will be the same for any water molecule.

This does not mean that hydrogen and oxygen always combine in a 2:1 ratio to form H2O. Multiple proportions are possible. For example, hydrogen and
oxygen may combine in different proportions to form H2O2 rather than H2O. In H2O2, the H:O ratio is 1:1 and the mass ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
is 1:16. This will be the same for any molecule of hydrogen peroxide.
Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory
1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties
3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
4) A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
 Limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory
1) According to Dalton theory atoms are indivisible. Now it is established that atoms are divisible into fundamental
particles-proton, neutron and electron.

2) Atoms of same elements have same mass according to Dalton. But isotopes show that atoms of same
element can have different masses. Hydrogen has three isotopes having masses of 1, 2 and 3 units.

3) Dalton said that atoms of different elements will have different masses. After the discovery of isobar
s, we
see that atoms of different elements can have same masses. Example: Tellurium (atomic number 52) and iodine
(atomic number 53) have same atomic mass 127.

4) Dalton called atom to be the smallest part of both element and compound. But now it is known that atoms are
smallest part of an element that can exist in free state and molecules are smallest part of compound. Dalton did not
show any difference between an atom and a molecule.
Sir Joseph John Thomson 18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was an English physicist and Nobel laureate in physics,
credited with the discovery and identification of the electron; and with the discovery of the first subatomic particle.

One of Thomson's greatest contributions to modern science was in his role as a highly gifted teacher. One of his students
was Ernest Rutherford, who later succeeded him as Cavendish Professor of Physics. In addition to Thomson himself, six of
his research assistants (Charles Glover Barkla, Niels Bohr: Influenced Hisenberg, Pauli; Max Born, William Henry
Bragg, Owen Willans Richardson and Charles Thomson Rees Wilson) won Nobel Prizes in physics, and two (Francis
William Aston and Ernest Rutherford: father of nuclear physics; Under his leadership the neutron was discovered
by James Chadwick:  honoured by being interred near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb) won Nobel prizes in chemistry. In
addition, Thomson's son (George Paget Thomson) won the 1937 Nobel Prize in physics for proving the wave-like properties
of electrons.
JJ Thomson model
J.J. Thomson's experiments with
cathode ray tubes showed that all
atoms contain tiny negatively charged
subatomic particles or electrons.
Thomson proposed the plum pudding
model of the atom, which had
negatively-charged electrons
embedded within a positively-charged
"soup."
 Idea of nucleus
(Gold Foil Experiment or α- scattering experiment)
Rutherford in 1911 projected a beam of alpha (α) particles from a radioactive source upon a very thin gold foil. The α-
particles emitted from radioactive elements with great velocities, on the average about 180,000 miles per second.

1. most alpha particles were observed to pass straight through the gold foil without deflection
2. a few were scattered at large angles
3. some even bounced back toward the source as if the α-particles have met with some obstacles in their onward journey
 Rutherford’s Atom Model
The Rutherford atomic model has been alternatively called the nuclear atom, or the planetary
model of the atom or Solar system model.

1. Most of the space of an atom is empty.

2. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated at the center (99.95 % or more) – called the nucleus which is positively
charged and exceedingly small as compared to the total size of atom.

3. Electrons move around the nucleus, almost like the solar system in which the planets move around the sun.

4. The number of electrons must be equal to the number of positively charged particles in the nucleus so that the atom as a
whole is neutral.

5. Due to rapid rotation of electron around the nucleus, the inward force of electrostatic attraction (centripetal force)
between electron and nucleus is exactly counterbalanced by the outward centrifugal force.
 Limitations of Rutherford’s Atom Model
1. Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. According to Maxwell, accelerated charged
particles emit electromagnetic radiations and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation. This
radiation would carry energy from the motion of the electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons
would collapse in the nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per Rutherford’s model an electron would collapse in the nucleus in less
than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford’s model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the stability of an atom.

2. This model is based upon Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation. But Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation can only be applied to
neutral bodies such as planets and not to charged bodies such as tiny electrons moving round a positive nucleus. The analogy does not hold
good since the electrons in an atom repel one another, whereas planets attract each other because of gravitational forces. Besides there is
electrostatic attraction in a nuclear atom model.

3. Rutherford did not give any idea about the shape of the orbits.

4. There was no explanation about the rotation of electrons in an atom with many electrons.

5. It did not say anything about the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made the theory incomplete.
 Spectrum

When white light is passed through a prism it is resolved into various color components of different wave length, and what
is obtained is called a spectrum. In the seventeenth century Newton showed that sun light is composed of various color
components.

Line Spectrum: A spectrum showing only certain colors or specific wavelengths of light.

Continuous spectrum: A spectrum containing light of all wavelengths.

Emission spectrum: If atoms or molecules are heated to sufficiently high temperature, they emit light of certain
wavelengths. The pattern of frequencies emitted by the substance is called emission spectrum. From the emission spectrum
we get bright lines.

Absorption spectrum: When white light is passed through a substance, black lines appear in the spectrum where light of
some wavelengths have been absorbed by the substance. The pattern of frequencies absorbed by the substance is called
absorption spectrum. From the absorption spectrum we get dark lines.
 Lyman Series Bahmer Series

Paschen Series Bracket Series Pfund Series

 Bohr's Atomic Model
In 1913, the physicist Niels Bohr introduced a model of the atom that contributed a greater understanding to its structure and quantum
mechanics. The Bohr Model was the first to propose quantum energy levels, where electrons orbit the nucleus at predefined distances and
must overcome an energy barrier to move into a new orbital. Bohr was awarded a Nobel prize in 1922 for his investigations into atomic
structure.

1. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in special orbits called discrete orbits to overcome the loss of energy. When an electron revolves
around the nucleus in this orbit, it does not radiate energy. This proved that the electrons need not lose energy and fall into the nucleus.

2. Each orbit is called a shell or energy level, and each level contains a specific amount of energy.

3. An electron will absorb energy when moving from a lower energy level to a higher energy level. This is called an excited state.

4. An electron will radiate energy when moving from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.

5. When electrons move from one orbit to another, they emit photons, producing light in characteristic absorption and emission spectra.
Since each element has its own signature, the spectra can be used to determine the composition of a material.

6. Orbits closer to the nucleus (those that have lower energy levels) are more stable. (An electron in its orbit with the lowest possible energy
is said to be in its ground state.)
 Limitations of Bohr's Atomic Model
1. Bohr's model only explains the spectra of species that have a single electron, such as the hydrogen atom , etc.

2. Bohr's theory predicts the origin of only one spectral line from an electron between any two given energy states. Under a
spectroscope of strong resolution, a single line is found to split into a number of very closely related lines. Bohr's theory
could not explain this multiple or fine structure of spectral lines. The appearance of the several lines implies that there are
several sub energy levels of nearly similar energy for each principal quantum number, n. This necessitates the existence of
new quantum numbers.

3. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines under the influence of a magnetic field or under the influence of an
electric field.

4. The pictorial concept of electrons jumping from one orbit to another orbit is not justified because of the uncertainty in
their positions and velocities. Also, This theory is unrealistic in the sense that periodic motion around a central body usually
follows an elliptical path rather than a circular path which has been assumed in the case of Bohr theory. If electrons follow
elliptical path, the velocity along the path does not remain constant.
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