Combinepdf 6

Institute of Business Administration (IBA)
University of Dhaka
G 108: Intro to Physical Science

BBA 28th Batch, Spring 2021
Course Teacher: Dr. Saika Ahmed

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Chemistry
University of Dhaka
Email: saika@du.ac.bd
Lecture 2
MARCH 07, 2021
Contents:
▪ The Atomic Theory

▪ Structure of Atom
▪ Atomic number, Mass number
▪ Isotopes
▪ Radioactivity
Reference book:
1. Chemistry (10th edition)- Chang
2. General Chemistry (11th edition)- Ebbing & Gammon
The Atomic Theory: History
In the fifth century B.C., the Greek philosopher Democritus expressed the
belief that all matter consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he
named atomos (meaning= uncuttable or indivisible).
In 1808 an English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton (1766–1844),

formulated a precise definition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we
call atoms.
Dalton’s concept of an atom was far more detailed and specific than Democritus’.
The Atomic Theory: Postulates
The main hypothesis of Dalton’s atomic theory were given by the following
postulates:
1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small

particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions.
2. An element is a type of matter that is composed of only one kind of atoms,

each atom of a given kind having the same properties. Mass is one such property.
Thus, the atoms of a given element have a characteristic mass.
3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements

chemically combined in fixed proportions. The relative numbers of any two kinds
of atoms in a compound occur in simple ratios.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement

of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
The idea of Dalton’s third law is an extension of a law published in 1799 by

Joseph Proust, a French chemist. ‘Proust’s law of definite proportions’ states
that,
“Different samples of the same compound always contain

its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.”
Thus, if we were to analyze samples of carbon dioxide gas

obtained from different sources, we would find in each
sample the same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen.
Dalton’s fourth hypothesis is another way of stating the law of

conservation of mass, which is,
Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
Because matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a chemical

reaction, it follows that mass must be conserved as well.
Atomic Symbol
It is convenient to use symbols for
the atoms of the different
elements.
An atomic symbol is a one- or

two-letter notation used to
represent an atom corresponding
to a particular element.
For example, chlorine has the symbol

Cl. Other symbols are derived from a
name in another language (usually
Latin). Sodium is given the symbol
‘Na’ from its Latin name, natrium.
Atomic Symbol
Early in the development of his atomic theory, Dalton built spheres to represent
atoms and used combinations of these spheres to represent compounds.
Structure of Atom
Dalton imagined an atom that was both extremely small and indivisible.
However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and extended into the
twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess internal
structure; that is, atoms are made up of even smaller particles, which are called
‘subatomic particles’.
This research led to the discovery of three such particles— electrons, protons,
and neutrons.
Structure of Atom: The Electrons
In 1897 the British physicist J. J. Thomson conducted a series of experiments

that showed that atoms were not indivisible particles. The famous ‘Cathode ray tube’
experiment is one of them, which helped in the discovery of electrons.
Thomson concluded that a cathode ray consists of particles which are negatively
charged, and he named these particles as ‘electrons’. He also proved that
electrons are constituents of all matters.
From his experiments, Thomson could also calculate the ratio of the electron’s
mass, me, to its electric charge, e. He could not obtain either the mass or
the charge separately, however.
In 1909 the U.S. physicist Robert Millikan performed a series of ingenious

experiments in which he obtained the charge on the electron.
From his experiment, the charge on the electron was found to be 1.602 × 10–19
coulombs (abbreviated C, a unit of electric charge).
The mass of an electron mass was found to be 9.109 × 10–31 kg, which is more
than 1800 times smaller than the mass of the lightest atom (hydrogen). This
shows quite clearly that the electron is indeed a subatomic particle.
Structure of Atom: The Protons and The Nucleus
By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become

clear: they contain electrons, and they are electrically
neutral. To maintain electric neutrality, an atom must
contain an equal number of positive and negative charges.
Thomson proposed that an atom could be thought of as a

uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are
embedded like raisins in a cake. This so-called “plum-
pudding” model was the accepted theory for a number of
years.
In 1910 the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, who had studied with
Thomson at Cambridge University, decided to use α particles to probe the structure
of atoms. Together with his associate Hans Geiger and an undergraduate named
Ernest Marsden, Rutherford carried out a series of experiments using very thin foils
of gold and other metals as targets for α particles from a radioactive source.
Based on his experiments, Rutherford proposed a new model. According to

Rutherford, most of the atom must be empty space. This explains why the majority
of α particles passed through the gold foil with little or no deflection.
Rutherford proposed that the atom’s positive

charges are all concentrated in the nucleus,
which is a dense central core within the atom.
Whenever an α particle came close to a
nucleus, it experienced a large repulsive
force and therefore a large deflection.
An α particle traveling directly toward a

nucleus would be completely repelled and its
direction would be reversed.
The positively charged particles in the nucleus are called protons .
In separate experiments, it was found that each proton carries the same quantity of
charge as an electron and has a mass of 1.67262 x 10-24 g— about 1840 times the
mass of the oppositely charged electron.
At this stage of investigation, scientists perceived the atom as follows: The mass of
a nucleus constitutes most of the mass of the entire atom, but the nucleus
occupies only about 1/1013 of the volume of the atom. A typical atomic radius is
about 100 pm, whereas the radius of an atomic nucleus is only about 5 x 10-3 pm.
Structure of Atom: The Neutrons
Rutherford’s model of atomic structure left one major problem unsolved. Hydrogen,
the simplest atom, contains only one proton and that the helium atom contains two
protons. Therefore, the ratio of the mass of a helium atom to that of a hydrogen
atom should be 2:1.
In reality, however, the ratio is 4:1.
Rutherford and others then postulated that there must be another type of
subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus; the proof was provided by another
English physicist, James Chadwick, in 1932.
Structure of Atom: The Neutrons
When Chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with α particles, a very high-
energy radiation was emitted by the metal.
The rays actually consisted of a third type of subatomic particles, which Chadwick
named ‘neutrons’.
Neutrons are thus electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than
that of protons.
The mystery of the mass ratio could now be explained. In the helium nucleus there
are two protons and two neutrons, but in the hydrogen nucleus there is only one
proton and no neutrons; therefore, the ratio is 4:1.
Structure of Atom: Finally!
Atomic Number
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an
element.
In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in
the atom.
The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely from its atomic number.
For example, the atomic number of fluorine is 9. This means that each fluorine
atom has 9 protons and 9 electrons.
Mass Number
The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the
nucleus of an atom of an element.
Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no
neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
The number of neutrons is, therefore, (A - Z).

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
Atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass. For example, there are
three isotopes of hydrogen. One, simply known as ‘hydrogen’, has one proton and
no neutrons. The ‘deuterium’ isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and
‘tritium’ has one proton and two neutrons.
A nuclide is an atom characterized by an atomic number and mass number. The

shorthand notation for any nuclide is,
Isotopes
Thus, for the three isotopes of hydrogen, we write,
With the exception of hydrogen, which has different names for each of its isotopes,
isotopes of elements are usually identified by their mass numbers.
Isotopes
Another example is two common isotopes of uranium with mass numbers
of 235 and 238, respectively,
The first isotope (Uranium-235) is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs,
whereas the second isotope (Uranium-238) lacks the properties necessary for these
applications.
Isotopes
Isotopes
The chemical properties of an element are determined primarily by the protons and
electrons in its atoms; neutrons do not take part in chemical changes under normal
conditions.
Therefore, isotopes of the same element have similar chemistries, forming the same
types of compounds and displaying similar reactivities.
Practice Exercise:
Radioactivity
In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen noticed that cathode rays caused
glass and metals to emit very unusual rays.
This highly energetic radiation penetrated matter, darkened covered

photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to fluoresce.
Because these rays could not be deflected by a magnet, they could not contain
charged particles as cathode rays do. Röntgen called them ‘X rays’ because their
nature was not known.
Radioactivity
After Röntgen’s discovery, Antoine Becquerel, a professor of physics in Paris,

began to study the fluorescent properties of substances.
Purely by accident, he found that exposing thickly wrapped photographic plates

to a certain uranium compound caused them to darken, even without the
stimulation of cathode rays.
Like X rays, the rays from the uranium compound were highly energetic and could
not be deflected by a magnet, but they differed from X rays because they arose
spontaneously.
Radioactivity
One of Becquerel’s students, Marie Curie, suggested the name radioactivity for
this phenomenon. Thus, ‘radioactivity’ is spontaneous emission of
particles and/or radiation from a nucleus.
Any element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be

radioactive.
Radioactivity
Three types of rays are produced by the

decay, or breakdown of radioactive
substances.
Alpha (α) rays consist of positively charged

particles, called α particles. They are
deflected by the positively charged plate.
Beta (β) rays, or β particles, are electrons and

are deflected by the negatively charged plate.
The third type of radioactive radiation consists of high-energy rays

called gamma (γ) rays. Like X rays, γ rays have no charge and are
not affected by an external field.
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
Lecture 3
MARCH 14, 2021
Contents:
▪ The Periodic Table

▪ Molecules
▪ Ions
▪ Chemical Formulas
▪ Naming of Compounds
Reference books:
1. Chemistry (10th edition)- Chang
2. General Chemistry (11th edition)- Ebbing & Gammon
The Periodic Table of Elements
Recognition of periodic regularities in physical and chemical behavior and the need
to organize the large volume of available information about the structure and
properties of elemental substances led to the development of the periodic table.
A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the regular

repetition of properties of the elements, is called a periodic table.
In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) and the German
chemist J. Lothar Meyer (1830–1895) independently found that when the elements
are arranged in order of their atomic weights, they could be placed in horizontal
rows, one row under the other, so that the elements in each vertical column have
similar properties.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
In the early part of the last century, it was shown that the elements are
characterized by their atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights. When the
elements in the periodic table were ordered by atomic number, the discrepancies
vanished which were arisen due to arranging the elements by their atomic weight.
Thus, a modern version of the periodic table involves the elements arranged by
their atomic numbers.
The modern
Periodic Table
▪ A period consists
of the elements in
any one horizontal
row.
▪ A group consists of
the elements in
any one column.
Classification of Elements in the Periodic Table
❑ The A groups are called main-group (or representative) elements; while the B groups are called
transition elements. The two rows of elements at the bottom of the table are called inner
transition elements (the first row is referred to as the lanthanides; the second row, as the
actinides).
❑ The Group 1A elements (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) are called alkali metals; while the Group 2A
elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra) are called alkaline earth metals. Elements in Group 7A (F,
Cl, Br, I, and At) are known as halogens, and elements in Group 8A (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)
are called noble gases, or rare gases.
❑ The elements can also be divided into three categories—metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. A
metal has a characteristic luster or shine, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity; while a
nonmetal is usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity. A metalloid has properties that are
intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.
In the periodic table, all the elements in any particular group have
similar properties.
On the other hand, the properties of the elements in the same

period change periodically.
Distribution of Elements on Earth
Earth’s crust extends from the earth surface to a depth of about 40 km (about 25
mi). It is believed that there is a solid core consisting mostly of iron at the center
of Earth. Surrounding the core is a layer called the mantle, which consists of hot
fluid containing iron, carbon, silicon, and sulfur.
Trace elements, such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), and cobalt (Co), together make up about
0.1% of the body’s mass. These elements are necessary for biological functions such as growth, transport
of oxygen for metabolism, and defense against disease. There is a delicate balance in the amounts of these
elements in our bodies. Too much or too little over an extended period of time can lead to serious illness,
retardation, or even death.
Home Work!
1. Memorize the names and symbols of the first

30 elements of the periodic table!
2. Practice finding out the period, group, and type of

elements from the periodic table.
Molecules
➢ A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite

arrangement held together by chemical forces (which is called the
chemical bond).
➢ The molecules in such a substance are so small that even extremely

minute samples contain tremendous numbers of them. One billionth
(10–9) of a drop of water, for example, contains about 2 trillion (2 ×
1012) water molecules.
➢ A molecule may contain atoms of the same element or atoms of two

or more elements joined in a fixed ratio, in accordance with the law
of definite proportions.
Molecules
➢ Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound, which, by definition,

is made up of two or more elements. Hydrogen gas, for example, is a
pure element, but it consists of molecules made up of two H atoms
each. Water, on the other hand, is a molecular compound that
contains hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of two H atoms and one O
atom. Like atoms, molecules are electrically neutral.
Molecules
➢ Some elements alone form molecules and

are represented by molecular formulas.
Chlorine, for example, is a molecular
substance and has the formula Cl2, each
molecule being composed of two chlorine
atoms bonded together. Sulfur consists of
molecules composed of eight atoms; its
molecular formula is S8. Helium and neon
are composed of isolated atoms; their
formulas are He and Ne, respectively.
Molecules
➢ The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a diatomic

molecule because it contains only two atoms. Similar examples are
N2, O2, F2, Cl2, etc. A diatomic molecule can also contain atoms of
different elements, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
Molecules
➢ The vast majority of molecules contain more than two atoms. They
can be atoms of the same element, as in ozone (O3), which is made
up of three atoms of oxygen, or they can be combinations of two or
more different elements, like water (H2O), ammonia (NH3).
Molecules containing more than two atoms are called polyatomic
molecules.
Ions
➢ An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or

negative charge.
➢ The number of positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom

remains the same during ordinary chemical changes (called chemical
reactions), but negatively charged electrons may be lost or gained.
➢ For example, sodium chloride is a substance made up of ions.

Ions
The loss of one or more electrons An anion is an ion whose net

from a neutral atom results in a charge is negative due to an
cation, an ion with a net positive increase/gain in the number of
charge. For example, a sodium electrons. A chlorine atom (Cl),
atom (Na) can readily lose an for instance, can gain an electron
electron to become a sodium to become the chloride ion, Cl-
cation, which is represented by Na+
Ions
Ions
▪ An atom can lose or gain more than one electron. Examples of ions formed
by the loss or gain of more than one electron are Mg2+, Fe3+, S2-, and N3-.
These ions, as well as Na+ and Cl-, are called monatomic ions because they
contain only one atom.
▪ Two or more atoms can combine to form an ion that has a net positive or
net negative charge. They are called polyatomic ions such as OH- (hydroxide
ion), CN- (cyanide ion), SO42- (sulphate ion) and NH4+ (ammonium ion), since
these ions containing more than one atom.
Ions
With very few exceptions, metals tend to form cations and nonmetals form anions.
Chemical Formula
• A chemical formula is used to express the composition of molecules and ionic

compounds in terms of chemical symbols. For example, H2 is the molecular formula
for hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water.
Practice problem: Write the molecular formula of (a) methanol, an organic solvent
and antifreeze, and (b) chloroform, a solvent and a cleansing agent, from their ball-
and-stick models as follows.
Chemical Formula
• For ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on the
cation and anion in each formula unit must be zero. For example, the potassium
cation K+ and the bromine anion Br- combine to form the ionic compound
potassium bromide. The sum of the charges is +1 + (-1) = 0. Thus, the formula is
KBr.
• If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically different, we apply the
following rule to make the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of the
cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the
anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation.
For example, the cation is Al3+ and the anion is O2-. The
sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0. Thus, the formula
for aluminum oxide is Al2O3.
Chemical Formula
Practice Exercise:
Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:

(a) Chromium sulfate, containing Cr3+ and SO42- ions
(b) Titanium oxide, containing Ti4+ and O2- ions
(c) Magnesium nitride, containing Mg2+ and N3- ions
(d) Ammonium chloride
(e) Calcium fluoride
Naming of Compounds/Chemical Nomenclature
With the exception of the ammonium ion,

NH4+, all cations of interest to us are
derived from metal atoms.
The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name (chlorine) and
adding “-ide.”
The “-ide” ending is also used for certain anion groups containing different
elements, such as hydroxide (OH-) and cyanide (CN-).
▪ Most of the ionic compounds are binary compounds, or compounds formed

from just two elements. For binary compounds, the first element named is
the metal cation, followed by the nonmetallic anion. Thus, NaCl is sodium
chloride.
▪ Potassium bromide (KBr), zinc iodide (ZnI2), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) are
also binary ionic compounds.
▪ Ternary compounds are compounds consisting of three different elements.

Naming of Compounds
▪ Transition metals can form more than one type of cation. For example,
Ion Name
Fe2+ Ferrous/Fe(II)
Fe3+ Ferric/Fe(III)
Here, 2,3 = Oxidation states of Iron
▪ The more common way is to designate different cations with

Roman numerals.
MnO → Manganese(II) oxide Mn2O3 → Manganese(III) oxide
MnO2 → Manganese(IV) oxide
Practice naming compounds

Molecular/Covalent Compounds
Same as ionic compounds

HCl Hydrogen chloride Exceptions:
HBr Hydrogen bromide
CO Carbon monoxide NH3 Ammonia
CH4 Methane
CO2 Carbon dioxide
H2O Water
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide H2S Hydrogen sulfide
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetraoxide
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
Lecture 4
MARCH 28, 2021
Contents:
▪ Atomic Mass
▪ Avogadro’s Number
▪ Molar Mass
▪ Molecular Mass
Reference books:
1. Chemistry (10th edition) by Chang
2. General Chemistry (11th edition) by Ebbing & Gammon
Atomic Mass
As a single atom can not be weighed, rather it is possible to determine the mass of
one atom relative to another experimentally. The first step is to assign a value to the
mass of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as a standard.
Carbon-12 isotope is chosen as the standard and is arbitrarily assigned a mass of

exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu).
𝟏
1 amu = x mass of one carbon-12 atom
𝟏𝟐
Atomic mass (also called atomic weight) of an atom is the mass of the atom in amu.
For example, on average, a hydrogen atom is only 8.400% as massive as the carbon-
12 atom. Thus, the atomic mass of hydrogen must be 0.084 x 12.00 amu or 1.008
amu.
Atomic Mass: Average Atomic Mass
In the periodic table, the value of atomic mass of Carbon is not
12.00 amu, but 12.01 amu.
The reason for the difference is that most naturally occurring

elements (including carbon) have more than one isotope. The mass
on the periodic table thus indicates the average mass of the naturally occurring
mixture of isotopes.
For example, the natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13

are 98.90% and 1.10% , respectively. The atomic mass of carbon-13
has been determined to be 13.00335 amu. Thus, the average
atomic mass of carbon can be calculated as:
When it is said that the atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 amu, it therefore refers to
the average value. If carbon atoms could be examined individually, we would find
either an atom of atomic mass 12.00000 amu or one of 13.00335 amu, but never
one of 12.01 amu.
Fractional abundance of an isotope is the fraction of the total number of atoms

that is composed of a particular isotope.
Practice Exercise:
*The ‘average atomic mass or weight’ is often written as ‘atomic mass’ or ‘atomic weight’ for simplicity.
Practice Exercises:
Avogadro’s Number
The number of atoms in a 12 g sample of carbon-12 is called
Avogadro’s number.
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.0221415 x 1023

Amedeo Avogadro, 1776-1856
A mole of a substance
contains Avogadro’s
number (6.02 x 1023) of
atoms or molecules or ions.
Molar Mass
1 mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, molecules, or other particles) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of the
carbon-12 isotope.
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of the substance. For
example, Carbon-12 has a molar mass of exactly 12 g/mol, by definition.
Thus, 1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 C atoms, which has a total mass of 12 g.
Similarly, 1 mole of oxygen atoms (with the formula O) contains 6.02 x 1023 O
atoms. A mole of oxygen molecules (formula O2) contains 6.02 x 1023 O2
molecules—that is, 2 × 6.02 x 1023 O atoms.
What should be the mass of one C atom?
what should be the mass of 1 mole of O atom and 1 mole of O2 molecule?
Molar Mass
*M= Molar mass, NA= Avogadro’s number
Problem exercise:
1. How many moles of calcium (Ca) atoms are in 77.4 g of Ca? 1.93 moles
2. How many atoms are present in 3.14 g of copper (Cu)? 2.97 x 1022 atoms
3. What is the mass in grams of a calcium atom, Ca? 6.7 x 10-23 g
4. Dilute aqueous solutions are used as a bleach. Analysis of a solution shows that it
contains 0.909 mol hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in 1.00 L of solution. What is the mass
of H2O2 in this volume of solution? 30.9 g
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass/molecular weight = sum of the atomic masses (in
amu) in the molecule
**For ionic compounds like NaCl and MgO that do not contain discrete molecular units, use
the term formula mass instead.
For example, the molecular mass of H2O molecule is,

Molecular Mass
Practice
Exercise:
Molecular Mass
Practice
Exercise:
Molecular Mass vs. Molar Mass
Molecular Mass
Practice exercise:
1. What are the molecular masses of H2O, CH4? 18 amu, 16 amu
2. Calculate the number of moles of chloroform (CHCl3) in 598 g of

chloroform. 5 moles
3. How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of iso-propanol (rubbing alcohol),
C3H8O? 5.8 x 1024 H atoms
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
Lecture 5
APRIL 04, 2021
Contents:
▪ Avogadro’s Number
▪ Molar Mass
▪ Molecular Mass
▪ Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom
▪ Quantum Numbers
▪ Atomic Orbitals
Reference books:
Avogadro’s Number
The number of atoms in a 12 g sample of carbon-12 is called
Avogadro’s number.
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.0221415 x 1023

Amedeo Avogadro, 1776-1856
A mole of a substance
contains Avogadro’s
number (6.02 x 1023) of
atoms or molecules or ions.
Molar Mass
1 mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, molecules, or other particles) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of the
carbon-12 isotope.
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of the substance. For
example, Carbon-12 has a molar mass of exactly 12 g/mol, by definition.
Thus, 1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 C atoms, which have a total mass of 12 g.
Similarly, 1 mole of oxygen atoms (with the formula O) contains 6.02 x 1023 O
atoms. A mole of oxygen molecules (formula O2) contains 6.02 x 1023 O2
molecules—that is, 2 × 6.02 x 1023 O atoms.
What should be the mass of one C atom in g?
what should be the mass of 1 mole of O atom and 1 mole of O2 molecule in g?
Molar Mass
*M= Molar mass, NA= Avogadro’s number
Problem exercise:
1. How many moles of calcium (Ca) atoms are in 77.4 g of Ca? 1.93 moles
2. How many atoms are present in 3.14 g of copper (Cu)? 2.97 x 1022 atoms
3. What is the mass in grams of a calcium atom, Ca? 6.7 x 10-23 g
4. Dilute aqueous solutions are used as a bleach. Analysis of a solution shows that it
contains 0.909 mol hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in 1.00 L of solution. What is the mass
of H2O2 in this volume of solution? 30.9 g
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass/molecular weight = sum of the atomic masses (in
amu) in the molecule
For example, the molecular mass of H2O molecule is,

Molecular Mass
Practice
Exercise:
Molecular Mass
Practice
Exercise:
Molecular Mass vs. Molar Mass
Molecular Mass
Practice exercise:
1. What are the molecular masses of H2O, CH4? 18 amu, 16 amu
2. Calculate the number of moles of chloroform (CHCl3) in 598 g of

chloroform. 5 moles
3. How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of iso-propanol (rubbing alcohol),
C3H8O? 5.8 x 1024 H atoms
Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom
Bohr’s Postulates:
1. Energy level postulate: Electrons can have only specific energy values in an atom,
which are called its energy levels. The energy of an energy level is,
RH = the Rydberg constant =2.18 x 10-18 J
n = the Energy level (integer)
2. Transition between Energy level postulate: An electron

in an atom can change energy only by going from one
energy level to another energy level.
Energy lost,
Problem: What is the energy change when the transition of

electron is from n=4 to n=2?
Quantum Numbers
describe the
1. Principal quantum number, n distribution/location
2. Angular momentum (azimuthal) quantum number, l of electrons
3. Magnetic quantum number, ml
4. Spin quantum number, ms describes the
behavior of
electron
Complete
description of an
electron in an
atom
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal quantum number, n
▪ This quantum number indicates the energy of an electron in an atom
▪ Can have any positive integer value: 1, 2, 3, and so on
▪ The energy of an electron in an atom depends principally on n.
▪ The size of an orbital also depends on n. The larger the value of n is, the larger
the orbital.
▪ It also relates to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital. The larger the value of n, the far away is the electron from
nucleus.
Quantum Numbers
2. Angular momentum quantum number, l
▪ It tells us the “shape” of the orbital
▪ For a given value of n, l has possible integral values from 0 to (n-1).
▪ If n=1, there is only one possible value of l; that is, l=0.

If n=2, there are two values of l, given by 0 and 1.
Thus, if l=0, the orbital is an ‘s’ orbital; if l=1, it is a ‘p’ orbital; and so on.
▪ For example, the shell with n =2 is composed of two subshells, l = 0 (2s) and l = 1
(2p). Here, 2 denotes the value of n, and s and p denote the values of l.
Quantum Numbers
▪ It describes the orientation of the orbital in space
▪ For a certain value of l, there are (2l+1) integral values of ml as follows:

-l, (-l+1), . . . 0, . . . (+l-1), l
▪ If l =0, then ml = 0.
If l = 1, then there are [2l+1], or three values of ml, namely, -1, 0, and +1.
If l = 2, then there are five values of ml, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2.
Problem: How many orbitals are there in 2p subshell?

Quantum Numbers
4. Spin quantum number, ms
▪ It refers to the two possible orientations of the spin axis of an

electron; possible values are +1/2 and -1/2.
▪ An electron spin would give rise to a circulating electric charge

that would generate a magnetic field. In this way, an electron
behaves like a small bar magnet, with a north and a south pole.
Quantum Numbers
Problem: State whether each of the following sets of quantum numbers is permissible for
an electron in an atom. If not, explain why.
Atomic Orbitals
The concept of electron density is the probability that an electron will be found in a
particular region of an atom.
Regions of high electron density represent a high probability of locating the
electrons.
An atomic orbital can be thought of as

the wave function of an electron in an
atom, which represents the distribution
of the electron density or the probability
of locating the electron in space.
Atomic Orbitals
s Orbitals ❖ l= 0 always indicates the ‘s’ orbital
❖ When n=1, l= 0; this indicates 1s orbital;
When n=2, l= 0; this indicates 2s orbital;
and so on..
All s orbitals are spherical in

1s shape but differ in size, which
orbital increases as the principal
quantum number increases.
2D view 3D view
Atomic Orbitals
p Orbitals ❖ l= 1 always indicates the ‘p’ orbital
❖ p orbitals start with the principal quantum number, n= 2
(when n=1, l has only one value of 0, which is the ‘1s’ orbital)
❖ n=2, l=1 indicates the 2p orbital;
n=3, l=1 indicates the 3p orbital;
and so on…
❖ When l=1, the magnetic quantum number ml can have
values of -1, 0, +1.
px py pz
❖ All the three p orbitals are identical in size, shape, and
energy (two lobes arranged along a straight line with the
nucleus between the lobes); they differ from one another
only in orientation.
Atomic Orbitals
d Orbitals ❖ l= 2 indicates the ‘d’ orbital
❖ When l=2, there are five values of ml, which correspond to
five d orbitals.
❖ The lowest value of n for a d orbital is 3.
❖ When n=3 and l=2, we have five 3d orbitals
(3dxy, 3dyz, 3dxz, 3dx2-y2, and 3dz2).
❖ All the 3d orbitals in an atom are identical in energy; but only
differ in orientation.
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
Quantum Numbers & Atomic Orbitals
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
Lecture 6
APRIL 06, 2021
Contents:
▪ Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom

▪ Quantum Numbers
▪ Atomic Orbitals
Reference books:
Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom
Bohr’s Postulates:
1. Energy level postulate: Electrons can have only specific energy values in an atom,
which are called its energy levels. The energy of an energy level is,
RH = the Rydberg constant =2.18 x 10-18 J
n = the Energy level (integer)
2. Transition between Energy level postulate: An electron

in an atom can change energy only by going from one
energy level to another energy level.
Energy lost,
Problem: What is the energy change when the transition of

electron is from n=4 to n=2?
Quantum Numbers
describe the
1. Principal quantum number, n distribution/location
2. Angular momentum (azimuthal) quantum number, l of electrons
4. Spin quantum number, ms describes the
behavior of
electron
Complete
description of an
electron in an
atom
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal quantum number, n
▪ This quantum number indicates the energy of an electron in an atom
▪ Can have any positive integer value: 1, 2, 3, and so on
▪ The energy of an electron in an atom depends principally on n.
▪ The size of an orbital also depends on n. The larger the value of n is, the larger
the orbital.
▪ It also relates to the average distance of the electron from the
nucleus in a particular orbital. The larger the value of n, the
far away is the electron from nucleus.
Quantum Numbers
2. Angular momentum quantum number, l
▪ It indicates the subshell under an energy shell and tells us the “shape” of the orbital.
▪ For a given value of n, l has possible integral values from 0 to (n-1).
▪ For n=1 shell, there is only one possible value of l; that is, l=0; i.e. only one subshell.
If n=2, there are two values of l (two subshells), given by 0 and 1.
If l=0, the orbital is an ‘s’ orbital; if l=1, this is a ‘p’ orbital; and so on.
For a given n, the energy of an orbital increases with l.
▪ For example, the shell with n =2 is composed of two subshells, l = 0 (2s) and l = 1
(2p). Here, 2 denotes the value of n, while ‘s’ and ‘p’ denote the values of l.
Quantum Numbers
▪ It describes the orientation of the orbital in space
▪ For a certain value of l, there are (2l+1) integral values of ml as follows:

-l, (-l+1), . . . 0, . . . (+l-1), +l
▪ If l =0, then ml = 0.
If l = 1, then there are [2l+1], or three values of ml, namely, -1, 0, and +1.
If l = 2, then there are five values of ml, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2.
Quantum Numbers
4. Spin quantum number, ms
▪ It refers to the two possible orientations of the spin axis of an

electron; possible values are +1/2 and -1/2.
▪ An electron spin would give rise to a circulating electric charge

that would generate a magnetic field. In this way, an electron
behaves like a small bar magnet, with a north and a south pole.
Quantum Numbers
Problem: How many orbitals are

there in 2p subshell?
Problem: State whether each of the following sets of quantum numbers is permissible for
an electron in an atom. If not, explain why.
Atomic Orbitals
The electron density in a particular region in an atom indicates the probability that
an electron will be found in that region of the atom.
Thus, regions of high electron density represent a high probability of locating the
electrons.
An atomic orbital represents the

distribution of the electron density or
the probability of locating the electron
in space.
Atomic Orbitals
s Orbitals ❖ l= 0 always indicates the ‘s’ orbital
❖ When n=1, l= 0; this indicates 1s orbital;
When n=2, l= 0; this indicates 2s orbital;
and so on..
All s orbitals are spherical in

1s shape but differ in size, which
orbital increases as the principal
quantum number increases.
2D view 3D view
Atomic Orbitals
p Orbitals
❖ l= 1 always indicates the ‘p’ orbital
❖ p orbitals start with the principal quantum number, n= 2
(when n=1, l has only one value of 0, which is the ‘1s’ orbital)
❖ n=2, l=1 indicates the 2p orbital;
n=3, l=1 indicates the 3p orbital; and so on…
❖ When l=1, the magnetic quantum number ml can have
values of -1, 0, +1.
px py pz
❖ All the three p orbitals are identical in size, shape, and

energy (two lobes arranged along a straight line with the
nucleus between the lobes); they differ from one another
only in orientation.
Atomic Orbitals
d Orbitals ❖ l= 2 indicates the ‘d’ orbital
❖ When l=2, there are five values of ml (-2,-1,0,+1,+2), which
correspond to five d orbitals.
❖ The lowest value of n for a d orbital is 3.
❖ When n=3 and l=2, we have five 3d orbitals
(3dxy, 3dyz, 3dxz, 3dx2-y2, and 3dz2).
❖ All the 3d orbitals in an atom are identical in energy; but only
differ in orientation.
Atomic Orbitals
**For better understanding of atomic orbitals, you may

watch this video on Youtube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26PF9Ctch9Y
Quantum Numbers & Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
Lecture 7
APRIL 11, 2021
Contents:
▪ Energy of Orbitals
▪ Electron Configuration and Rules
▪ Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
▪ Limiting and Excess Reagents
▪ Reaction Yield
Reference books:
Energies of Orbitals
For H atom, energy of an orbital only depends on ‘n’ (Bohr’s postulate)
Energies of Orbitals
For many-electron atoms (i.e. except H),
Electron Configuration
An electron configuration of an atom is the expression of how the electrons

are distributed among the various atomic orbitals.
Orbital
diagram:
Electron Configuration: Rules
Building-Up Principle (Aufbau* Principle):
As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements,
electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals.
For example, hydrogen atom (Z=1) has only one electron, helium (Z=2) has two,
lithium (Z=3) has three, and so on.
*The German word “Aufbau” means “building up.”

Pauli Exclusion Principle:
Consider the helium atom, which has two

electrons. The three possible ways of
placing two electrons in the 1s orbital are:
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
An orbital can hold at most two electrons, and only if the electrons have
opposite spins.
Hund’s Rule:
Electron configuration of Carbon,
C (6) → 1s2 2s2 2p2
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is

the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.
Problem: Write down the electron configurations of the following atoms, ions:
F(9), Na, 17Cl, Fe(26), Fe3+(26), Al3+(13), Ca, Ca2+
F (9) → 1s2 2s2 2p5 Addition or

2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 removal of
17Cl → 1s electron always
takes place from
Al3+(13) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s 3p the last energy
levels
Fe(26) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
Fe3+(26) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s0
*Practice electron configurations of different atoms by referring to Table 7.3 of Chang’s book.
Exceptions: Cr(24) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2 X

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 ✔️
Cu(29) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2 X

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 ✔️
University of Dhaka


University of Dhaka
saika@du.ac.bd
Lecture 8
APRIL 18, 2021
Contents: Chapter 4
▪ Chemical Bond
▪ Types of Chemical Bonds: Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic
▪ Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
▪ Limiting and Excess Reagents
▪ Reaction Yield
Reference books:
Chapter 4:
Chemical Bonding and Reactions

Lewis Dot Formula, Octet Rule
Lewis dot formula
A Lewis electron-dot symbol is a symbol in which the electrons in the valence
shell of an atom or ion are represented by dots placed around the letter symbol
of element. For example, the Lewis dot formulas for carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen are,
Octet Rule
The formation of chemical bond is inspired by the famous ‘Octet rule’, formulated
by Lewis:
An atom other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is
surrounded by eight valence electrons.
Chemical Bond
A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between the atoms
in a substance, which holds the atoms together.
Chemical Bond: Ionic
Consider the transfer of a valence electron from a sodium atom (electron
configuration [Ne]3s1) to the valence shell of a chlorine atom ([Ne]3s23p5).
The sodium atom has lost its 3s electron and has taken on the neon configuration,
[Ne]. The chlorine atom has accepted the electron into its 3p subshell and has
taken on the argon configuration, [Ne]3s23p6.
As a result of the electron transfer, ions are formed, each of which has a noble-gas
configuration. The electrostatic force of attraction between the Na+ and Cl- ions
result in the formation of Ionic bond.
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds the ions together in an
ionic compound.
The bond forms between two atoms when one or more electrons are
transferred from the valence shell of one atom to the valence shell of the other.
The atom that loses electrons becomes a cation (positive ion), and the atom that
gains electrons becomes an anion (negative ion). The motivation of loss or gain of
electrons is to attain the electron configuration of a noble gas.
➢ Such noble-gas configurations and the corresponding

ions are particularly stable. This stability of the ions
accounts for the formation of the ionic solid NaCl.
➢ Within the sodium chloride crystal, NaCl, every Na+ ion is

surrounded by six Cl− ions, and every Cl− ion by six Na+
ions.
The equation representing the transfer of an electron from the sodium atom
to the chlorine atom, using the Lewis dot formula, is:
The noble-gas configurations of the ions are apparent from the symbols. No
dots are shown for the cation (all valence electrons have been removed,
leaving the noble-gas core.)
Practice Exercises:
Chemical Bond: Covalent
A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons
between atoms.
Covalent compounds are compounds that contain only covalent bonds.
Consider the formation of a covalent bond between two H

atoms to give the H2 molecule. As the atoms approach one
another, their 1s orbitals begin to overlap. At this point, both
the two electrons can be shared by the atoms. The electrons
are attracted simultaneously by the positive charges of the
two hydrogen nuclei. This attraction that bonds the electrons
to both nuclei is the force holding the atoms together.
Covalent bonding between many-electron atoms involves only the valence

electrons. Consider the fluorine molecule, F2. The electron configuration of F is
1s22s22p5. Thus, each F atom has seven valence electrons (the 2s and 2p electrons).
For the sake of simplicity,

the shared pair of
electrons is often
represented by a single
line.
Only the two valence electrons participate in the formation of F2. The other,
nonbonding electrons, are called lone pairs—pairs of valence electrons that are not
involved in covalent bond formation. Thus, each F in F2 has three lone pairs of
electrons:
In the F2 and H2O molecules, the F and O atoms achieve a noble gas
configuration by sharing electrons:
A covalent bond forms when there are not enough electrons for each individual
atom to have a complete octet. By sharing electrons in a covalent bond, the
individual atoms can complete their octets.
Chemical Bond: Multiple Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared by two atoms is
called a ‘single bond’.
A ‘double bond’ is a covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared by
two atoms. A ‘triple bond’ is a covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are
shared by two atoms. For example, ethylene and acetylene molecules contain
double and triple bonds between two carbon atoms, respectively.
Chemical Bond: Coordinate Covalent
A coordinate covalent bond is a bond formed when both electrons of the
bond are donated by one atom.
Covalent Coordinate covalent
A coordinate covalent bond is not essentially different from other covalent bonds;
it involves the same sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms. An example
is the formation of the ammonium ion, in which an electron pair on the N atom of
NH3 forms a coordinate covalent bond with H+.
How many types of
chemical bonds are in
NH4Cl (ammonium
chloride)?
Chemical Bond: Metallic
Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises
from the electrostatic attractive force between valence
electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized
electrons) and positively charged metal ions.
A sodium metal crystal, for example, can be

regarded as an array of Na+ ions surrounded by
a “sea” of electrons. The valence electrons are
delocalized over the entire metal crystal. The
freedom of these electrons to move
throughout the crystal is responsible for the
electrical conductivity of a metal.
Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
Chemical reaction: A process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
Chemical equation: Using chemical symbols to show what happens during
a chemical reaction.
State symbols
Reactants 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) Product
❖ Two hydrogen molecules can combine or react with one oxygen molecule to form
two water molecules.
❖ 2 moles of hydrogen molecules react with 1 mole of oxygen molecule to produce 2
moles of water molecules.
❖ 4 (=2x2) g of H2 react with 32 g of O2 to give 36 g of H2O. → Mass balance
Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
▪ Balance the equation representing the reaction between iron(III) oxide,

Fe2O3, and carbon monoxide (CO) to produce iron (Fe) and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
▪ Methanol (CH3OH) burns in air according to the equation;

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in a combustion process, what is the mass
of H2O produced?
Limiting and Excess Reagents, Reaction Yield
▪ Limiting reagent: The reactant used up first in a reaction.
The reactant that produces fewer moles of product is the
limiting reagent, as it limits the amount of product that can
be formed.
▪ Excess reagent: The reactants present in quantities greater

than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting
reagent.
▪ Reaction Yield:
Theoretical yield of the reaction is the amount of product that would result if all the
limiting reagent reacted.
Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction; almost always
less than the theoretical yield.

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Institute of Business Administration (IBA)

G 108: Intro to Physical Science

Course Teacher: Dr. Saika Ahmed

▪ The Atomic Theory

In 1808 an English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton (1766–1844),

1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small

2. An element is a type of matter that is composed of only one kind of atoms,

3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement

The idea of Dalton’s third law is an extension of a law published in 1799 by

“Different samples of the same compound always contain

Thus, if we were to analyze samples of carbon dioxide gas

Dalton’s fourth hypothesis is another way of stating the law of

Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.

Because matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a chemical

An atomic symbol is a one- or

For example, chlorine has the symbol

In 1897 the British physicist J. J. Thomson conducted a series of experiments

In 1909 the U.S. physicist Robert Millikan performed a series of ingenious

By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become

Thomson proposed that an atom could be thought of as a

Based on his experiments, Rutherford proposed a new model. According to

Rutherford proposed that the atom’s positive

An α particle traveling directly toward a

The positively charged particles in the nucleus are called protons .

In reality, however, the ratio is 4:1.

In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

The number of neutrons is, therefore, (A - Z).

A nuclide is an atom characterized by an atomic number and mass number. The

Thus, for the three isotopes of hydrogen, we write,

This highly energetic radiation penetrated matter, darkened covered

After Röntgen’s discovery, Antoine Becquerel, a professor of physics in Paris,

Purely by accident, he found that exposing thickly wrapped photographic plates

Any element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be

Three types of rays are produced by the

Alpha (α) rays consist of positively charged

Beta (β) rays, or β particles, are electrons and

The third type of radioactive radiation consists of high-energy rays

G 108: Intro to Physical Science

Course Teacher: Dr. Saika Ahmed

▪ The Periodic Table

A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the regular

On the other hand, the properties of the elements in the same

1. Memorize the names and symbols of the first

2. Practice finding out the period, group, and type of

➢ A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite

➢ The molecules in such a substance are so small that even extremely

➢ A molecule may contain atoms of the same element or atoms of two

➢ Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound, which, by definition,

➢ Some elements alone form molecules and

➢ The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a diatomic

➢ An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or

➢ The number of positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom

➢ For example, sodium chloride is a substance made up of ions.

The loss of one or more electrons An anion is an ion whose net

• A chemical formula is used to express the composition of molecules and ionic

Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:

With the exception of the ammonium ion,

▪ Most of the ionic compounds are binary compounds, or compounds formed

▪ Ternary compounds are compounds consisting of three different elements.

▪ The more common way is to designate different cations with

Practice naming compounds

Same as ionic compounds