Chapter 4 Structure Of The Atom Notes Class 9 Science

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
INTRODUCTION
(i) The idea of tiniest unit of matter (Anu and Parmanu) was propounded
by maharishi Kanad in Vedic period in our country.
(ii) Democritus, a Greek philosopher also proposed that matter is made
up of extremely small particles, the “atom”. The name atom comes from
Greek language.
(iii) John Dalton in 1808 published theory of atom assuming that atoms
are the ultimate indivisible particles of matter.
(iv) Later the works f William Crookes (1878) , J.J. Thomson (1897)
and Goldstein proved that atom of any element contains smaller
particles which are either positively charged or negatively charged.
(v) Work of Rutherford and Neils Bohr confirmed that an atom
consists of three subatomic particles, that are electrons, protons and
neutrons.
(vi) It has been established that the central core of an atom consists of
protons and neutrons and is commonly called nucleus. The electrons
revolve around the nucleus.
(vii) The atom as a whole is electrically neutral as the number of
protons in it, is equal to the number of electrons.
The smallest indivisible particle or unit of an element is called an
atom, which can take part in a chemical reaction and may or may
not exist independently.
An element is a pure substance which cannot be subdivided into two or
more new substances by any means.
The word “ATOM” is given by “John Dalton”.

The Structure of the Atom

Ancient view of matter

The smallest particle of matter is the atom. One of the question which
puzzled Indian and Greek thinkers alike was the nature of matter.
Slowly, an idea developed among the natural philosophers in Greece–
that all matter must be made of some basic elements. They thought these
elements were water, earth, fire and sky. Some view was also
maintained by Indian philosophers.
According to Kanada if you cut a pure substance into smaller and
smaller bits, you would ultimately reach these indestructible particles
which could not be broken further. The atomic view of matter was
developed to quite an extent by other Indian philosophers. We can
equate the ‘anu’ with molecule and the ‘paramanu’ with atom. The greek
philosopher Democritus called the atoms as building blocks of matter.
He thought matter was made of tiny, invisible, eternal and immutable
particles or atoms.

Dalton’s atomic theory

Based on the scientific study of Lavoiser and others on chemical
reactions, the following conclusions were made–

1. Mass of reactants is always equal to the mass of products, matter is

neither created nor destroyed.

2. A compound always contains same elements combined in the same

proportion by mass.

Guided by these observations, John Dalton put forward the atomic

theory, which says:

1. Atoms of a particular element are alike, but differ from the atoms of
other elements.
2. Atoms are indestructible.
3. Atoms combine in simplest whole number ratio to form molecules.
4. Atom of an element has characteristic mass.

Atom is electrically neutral, but actually it contains positive and negative

charges which normally balance each other.

Discovery of electron

Some experiments conducted involve passage of electricity through a

gas in a sealed tube called gas discharge tube. Scientists discovered that
negatively charged particles are produced when an electric charge is
passed through a gas in this tube. Sir J.J Thomson measured the mass
and charge of the particles and named them electrons.

Discovery of proton

These positively charged particles were discovered by E. Goldstein

during experiments with discharge tube. Protons, carry same amount,
but of opposite charge as carried by electrons.

Thomson’s model of atom

Thomson suggested that the positive charge in an atom is spread evenly

over entire atom which, he supposed, was spherical. The negative
charges are embedded in the positively charged sphere.
This is called as the plum pudding model. This model failed to explain
many experimental observations.

Rutherford’s model

He put forward the following model of atom:

1. Entire positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a small area at its

centre, called nucleus

2. Size of nucleus is extremely small compared to the atom.

3. Electrons move around the nucleus in circular orbitals.

4. Most of the mass of atom is concentrated in its nucleus.

5. The number of electrons orbiting around the nucleus is equal to the

number of protons present in the nucleus.

6. Most of the space in atoms is empty.

Atomic number

The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom of an element is called

its atomic number. It is denoted by Z.

Atomic mass

The atomic mass of an element is the number of times by which the

mass of its atom is greater than 1/12 th the mass of carbon atom.

Mass number

The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus. It is denoted by A.
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) – atomic number (Z)

Isotopes
They can be defined as atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons. E.g.: The ordinary
hydrogen atom is Protium
(1/3H) while the other two isotopes are Deuterium (21 D) and tritium
(31 T).

Bohr’s model of atom

Bohr suggested that electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain

definite or fixed paths called orbits or shells. These orbits are called
energy levels or shells. The energy associated with an orbit increases
with its distance from the nucleus. The shells are numbered 1, 2, 3.. or
denoted as K, L, M, N....

How electrons are arranged?

1. Each shell can accommodate 2n2 electrons where ‘n’ stands for the
number of shell.

2. The maximum number of electrons that an outermost shell of an atom

can have is 8, except the first shell, which has only 2. This distribution
of electrons in various orbits of the atom of an element is called its
electronic configuration of element.

How atom combine?

Atoms of elements combine, in accordance with their valencies, to form

molecules of compounds during a chemical reactions.

Noble gases – Helium, neon, argon, Kr, Xe and Rn are noble gases
because they are stable and do not react with other elements to form
compounds.

Valence electrons – Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence

electrons. They determine the valency of an element and its combining
capacity.
Covalent compound – A compound formed by sharing of electrons
between two or more atoms.

Electrovalent compound – The electrostatic force of attraction that

holds ions together is called electrovalent bond. The compounds formed
this way are called electrovalent compounds.

Ion – An atom which becomes charged by losing or gaining electrons is

called ion. Positively charged ion is cation and negatively charged ion is
anion.

Valency – The valency of an element is the number of electrons lost,

gained or shared by its atom in a chemical reaction. Elements like iron,
copper, tin and sulphur have variable valency. Simply it may be defined
as combining capacity of an atom of an element.

Mole Concept
Concept of Limiting Reagent: In the reactions involving more than one
reactant, the amount of product formed depends on the limiting reactant
i.e. the reactant which is completely consumed. All calculations have to
be worked on the basis of the limiting reagent only.

Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bond: An ionic bond is formed at a result of the transference of
electrons from one atom to the other. Elements having the tendency to
lose electrons are called electropositive (e.g. alkali metals) while those
having a tendency to gain electrons are called electronegative (e.g.
halogens) elements.

Covalent Bond: Atoms can also acquire eight electrons in their valence
shell by sharing electrons.

When two atoms get bounded by sharing of electrons, the bond formed
is called a covalent bond.
Co-ordinate Bond or Dative Bond: A bond formed by sharing of an
electron pair, where one of the bonding atoms provide both the electrons
to be shared, is called a co-ordinate bond or dative bond. The atom
which supplies the electron pair (a lone pair) is called donor and the
other atom accepting the share in this lone pair is called the acceptor.

A coordinate bond is indicated by an arrow (→) pointing towards the

acceptor atom.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

(a) Electron :
Electron has a negative charge on it, its mass is 1/1837 times the mass
of one atom of hydrogen. It is denoted by the symbol 0 -1 θ, where 0
denotes its mass and -1 denotes its charge. Electrons in the outer most
shell are called valence electrons.
(b) Proton :
Proton has a unit positive charge, it is denoted by the symbol 1+1 p,
where 1 denotes it atomic mass and +1 denotes its charge.
(c) Neutron :
Neutron has no electric charge on it. Its mass is almost equal to
the mass of one atom of hydrogen. it is denoted by the symbol 10 n,
where 1 denotes its atomic mass and 0 denotes its charge.
In the neutral atom the total number of protons in the nucleus is
equal to the number of electrons revolving round the nucleus.
THOMSONS MODEL OF AN ATOM
After the discovery of electrons and protons J.J. Thomson (1898) tried
to explain the arrangement of electrons and protons within the tom. He
proposed that an atom consists of a sphere of positive electricity in
which electrons are embedded like plum in pudding or seeds evenly
distributed in red spongy mass in watermelon. The radius of the
sphere is of the other 10-8 cm which is equal to the size of the atom.
Although Thmoson’s model could explain the electrical neutrality of an
atom but this model could not satisfy experimental facts proposed by
Rutherford and hence was discarded.
 “Proton is a sub - atomic particle having a unit positive charge
(+1.602 × 10-19 kg) & mass (1.6725 × 10-27 kg) which is about 1837
times greater than the mass of an electron.”
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
(a) Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment :
Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers performed numerous experiments
in which particles emitted from a radioactive element such as
polonium were allowed to strike thin sheets of metals such as gold and
platinum.
(i) A beam of -particles (He2+) we obtained by placing polonium in
a lead box and letting the alpha particles come out of a pinhole in the
lead box. This beam of -rays was directed against a thin gold foil
(0.00004 cm). A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide was placed
on the other side of the foil.
(ii) About 99% of the particles passed undeflected through the gold
foil and caused illumination of zinc sulphide screen.
(iii) Very few -particles underwent small and large deflections after
passing through the gold foil.
(iv) A very few (about 1 in 20,000) were deflected backward on their
path at an angle of 1800.

Rutherford was able to explain these observations as follows :

(i) Since a large number of -particles pass through the
atom undeflected, hence, there must be large empty space within the
atom.
(ii) As some of the - particles got defleted, therefore, there must be
something massive and positively charged present in the atom.
(iii) The number of -particles which got deflected is very small,
therefore, the whole positive charge in the atom is conventratted in a
very small space.
(iv) Some of the -particles retracted their path i.e. came almost
straight back towards the sources as a result of their direct collisions
with the heavy mass.
- particles are made up of two protons and two neutrons and are He
nuclei.

The positively charged heavy mass which occupies only a small

space as compared to the total space occupied by the atom is called
nucleus.
(b) Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom :
Rutherford proposed a new picture of the structure of the atom. Main
feature of this model are as follows -
(i) The atom of an element consists of a small positively charged
“Nucleus” which is situated at the centre of the atom and which carries
almost the entire mss of the atom.
(ii) The electrons are distributed in the empty space of the atom around
the nucleus in different concentric circular paths (orbits).
(iii) The number of electrons in the orbits is equal to the total
number of protons in the nucleus.
(iv) Volume of nucleus is very small as compared to the volume of
atom.
(v) Most of the space in the atom is empty.

The stability of such a system in which negatively charged electrons

surround a positively charged nucleus was explained by proposing
that the electrons revolve around the nucleus at very high speed in
circular orbits. This arrangement is just like our solar
system. The high sped of the moving electrons given them
a centrifugal force acting away from the nucleus. The centrifugal
force balance the electrostatic force of attraction acting between the
nucleus and the electrons.
(c) Defects in Rutherford’s Model :
(i) Rutherford did not specify the number of electrons in each orbit.
(ii) According to electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle
(electron) is accelerated around another charged particle
(nucleus) then there would be continuous radiation of
energy. This loss of energy would slow down the speed of
electron and eventually the electron would fall into the nucleus. But
such a collapse does not occur. Rutherford’s model could not explain
this theory.
BOHR’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
Rutherford’s model of the atom was unable to explain certain
observations with regard to the atom i.e. stability of the atom and the
occurrence of the atomic spectra. Neils Bohr accepted Rutherford’s idea
that the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated in its nucleus with the electrons present at some distance
away.
According to Bohr’s theory -
(i) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits or
shells, each shell having a definite amount of energy associated with
the electrons in it. Therefore, these shells are also called energy levels.
(ii) The energy associated with the electrons in an orbit increases as
the radius of the orbit increases. These shells are known as K, L, M,
N etc. starting from the one closest to the nucleus.
(iii) An electron in a shell can more to a higher or lower energy shell by
absorbing or releasing a fixed amount of energy.
(iv) The amount of energy absorbed or emitted is given by
the difference of energies associated with the two energy levels.
Energy absorbed, DE = E2 - E1 = hν
Energy emitted, DE = E2 - E1 = hν
Where h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.62 × 10-34 Js) and is the
frequency of the radiation.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom consists of two parts :
(a) Nucleus :
Nucleus is situated in the centre of an atom. All the protons & neutrons
are situated in the nucleus, therefore, the entire mass of an atom is
almost concentrated in the nucleus. The overall charge of nucleus is
positive due to the presence of positively charged protons (neutrons
present have no charge). The protons & neutrons are collectively
called nucleons. The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of
10-15 m.
(b) Extra nuclear region :
In extra nuclear part or in the region outside the nucleus, electrons are
present which revolve around the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies.
These orbits are called energy levels. These energy levels are designated
as K, L, M, N and so on.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a
shell is given by the formula 2n2 (where n = number of shell i.e. 1, 2,
3--)

Each energy level is further divided into subshells designated as s.p.d.f.

1st shell (K) contains 1 subshell (s)
2nd shell (L) contains 2 subshells (s,p)
3rd shell ( M) contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
4th shell (N) contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f).
ORBITALS
Like shells are divided into subshells, subshells further contain orbitals.
An orbital may be defined as a
“Region in the three - dimensional space around the nucleus where
the probability of finding an electron is maximum. The maximum
capacity of each orbital is that of two electrons.”
The total number of nucleons is equal to the mass number (A) of the
atom.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGUATION OF AN ATOM
(i) Each of the orbits can accommodate a fixed number of electrons.
Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is equal to 2n2, where ‘n’ is
the number of the orbit.
If n = 1 then 2n2 = 2
n = 2 then 2n2 = 8
n = 3 then 2n2 = 18
n = 4 then 2n2 = 32
(ii) In the outermost shell of any atom, the maximum possible
number of electrons is 8, except in the first shell which can have at
the most 2 electrons.
(iii) The arrangement of the electrons is different shells is known as
the electronic configuration of the element. The pictorial
representations of Bohr’s model o hydrogen, helium, carbon, sodium
and calcium atoms having 1, 2, 6, 11 and 20 electrons respectively are
shown in the figure where the centre of the circle represents the nucleus.
If the outermost shell has 8 electrons it is said to be an octet. If the
first shell has its full quota of 2 electrons, it is said to be duplet.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS UPTO
ATOMIC NUMBER 30
VALENCY
Valency of an element is the combining capacity of the atoms of the
element with atoms of the same or different elements. The combining
capacity of the atoms of other elements was explained in terms of their
tendency to attain a fully - filled outermost shell (stable octet or duplet).
The number of electrons gained, lost or contributed for sharing by
an atom of the element gives us directly the combining capacity or
valency of the element.
Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons
in an atom of the element.
The valency of an element = number of valence electrons
(when number of valence
electrons are from 1 to 4)
The valency of an element = 8 - number of valence
electrons.
(when number of valence
electrons are more than 4)
Na has 1 valence electron, thus, its valency is 1.
Cl has 7 valence electrons, thus, its valency is 8 - 7 = 1.
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The number of protons is the nucleus of an atom of a given element is
called the atomic number of that element.
or
Atomic number is the number of protons present in the atom of an
element. It is denoted. by “Z”
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons ( in a
neutral atom)
Atomic number = Number of protons (in an ion)
e.g. 11Na
-Atomic number of sodium is 11
-Nucleus of sodium has 11 protons.
- Nucleus of sodium has 11 units of positive charge.
- There are 11 electrons, revolving round the nucleus of sodium.
The atomic number is represented on the LHS of the symbol of the
element as subscript.
MASS NUMBER (A)
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons present in the
atom of an element. It is denoted by “A”. The mass number is
represented either on the left hand side (LHS) or on the right hand side
(RHS) of the symbol of the element as superscript.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
e.g.
-Mass number of aluminum is 27.
-The total number of protons and neutrons is the nucleus of aluminum is
27.
-Number of protons is 13.
-Number of neutrons is = 27 - 13 = 14.
Each element has a unique atomic number which is its identity.
(a) Relation between Z, A and N
A=Z+N
Z = Number of Protons
N = Number of neutrons
A = Mass number
N=A-Z
ISOTOPES
(a) Atoms of same element having the same chemical properties, but
differing in mass are known as isotopes.
The isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different
atomic masses. Isotopes have the same electrical charges means same
number of protons. The difference in their masses is due to the presence
of different number of neutrons.
e.g. (a) Isotopes of hydrogen
All the isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.
(b) Characteristics of Isotopes :
(i) The physical properties of the isotopes of an element are different
number of neutrons in their nuclei. Hence mass, density and other
physical properties of the isotopes of an element are different.
(ii) All the isotopes of an element contains the same number of
electrons. So, they have the same electronic configuration with the same
number of valence electrons. Since the chemical properties of an
element are determined by the number of valence electrons in its atom,
all the isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.
(c) Reason for the fractional atomic masses of elements :
The atomic masses of many elements are in fraction and not whole
number. The fractional atomic masses of elements are due to the
existence of their isotopes having different masses.
e.g. :The atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. Chlorine has two
isotopes with abundance of 75% and 25% respectively. Thus
the average mass of a chlorine atom will be 75% of Cl - 35 and 25% of
Cl-37, which is 35.5 u.
i.e., average atomic mass of chlorine

Thus, the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u.

Similarly, average atomic mass of copper is 63.5 u.
(d) Applications of Radioactive isotopes :
(i) In agriculture : Certain elements such as boron, cobalt, copper,
manganese, zinc and molybdenum are necessary is very minute
quantities for plant nutrition.
By radioactive isotopes we van identify the presence and
requirements of these element in the nutrition of plants.
(ii) In industry : Coating on the arm of clock to seen in dark. To
identify the cracks in metal casting.
(iii) In medicine : Thyroid, bone diseases, brain
tumours and cancer and diagnosed, controlled or destroyed with the

help of radioactive isotopes like ,Na, iodine, phosphorus etc.

(iv) Determination of the mechanism of chemical reaction : by
replacing an atom or molecule by its isotope.
(v) In carbon dating : Will and Libby (1960) developed the technique
of radiocarbon dating to determine the age of plants, fossils and
archeological samples.
Isotopes (Like Uranium - 238) are used in nuclear reactor to
produce energy and power.
ISOBARS
the atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, but
same mass number are called isobars.

ISOTONES
The isotones may be defined as the atoms of different elements
containing same number of neutrons.

ISOELECTRIC
Ion or atom or molecule which have the same number of electrons
are called as isoelectronic species.
e.g. Cl- Ar K+
Ca+2
No. of electrons 18 18 18 18
Isobars contain different number of electrons, protons and neutrons
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in the
following species.
(i) Phosphorus atom (ii) Phosphide ion (P3-) (iii) Magnesium ion
(Mg2+)
Mass number : P = 31, Mg = 24
Atomic numbers : P = 15, Mg = 12
Sol. (i) Phosphorus atom
Number of electrons = Atomic number = 15
Number of protons = Atomic number = 15
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number = 31 - 15 =
13.
(ii) Phosphide ion (P3-).
Phosphide ion (P3-) = Phosphorus atom + 3 electrons
P3- P + 3e -
Thus, phosphide ion has same number of protons and neutrons as
phosphorus atom but has three electrons more.
Number of electrons = 15 + 3 = 18
Number of protons = 15
Number of neutrons = 31 - 15 = 16
(iii) Magnesium ion (Mg2+)
Mg2+ ion is formed by the loss of two electrons by Mg atom. Therefore,
it has two electrons less than the number of electrons is Mg atom.
Number of electrons = 12 - 2 = 10
Number of protons = 12
Number of neutrons = (24 - 12_ = 12
2.The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of mass number
97 is 41. What will be the number of neutrons in its isotope of mass
number 99 ?
Sol. The atomic number of isotopes is same. Therefore, the number of
protons in both the atoms is same.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number
of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Number of
protons
= 99 - 41 = 58

3.Give number of protons and neutrons in

Sol. From the given symbol it is clear that the atomic number of uranium
is 92 and its mass number is 238.
Now, number of protons = Atomic number = 92
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic
number
= 238 - 92 = 146
4.Calculate the atomic number of an element whose mass number is
31 and number of neutrons is 13. What is the symbol of the
element ?
Sol. We know that, mass number = Number of protons + Number of
neutrons
But number of protons is equal to the atomic number.
Mass number = Atomic number + number of
neutron
or Atomic number = Mass number - number of
neutron = 31 - 16 = 15
The element with atomic number 15 is phosphorus which has
symbol P.
5.If bromine atom is available in the form of, say two isotopes

, calculate the average atomic mass of

bromine atom.
Sol. % of Br (79) = 49.7 ; % of Br (81) = 50.3

Atomic mass of Br =
= 80.0
Thus, atomic mass of bromine is 80.0
6.An isotope has atomic number 17 and mass number 37. What is
the arrangement of electrons in the shells of this isotope ? State
nuclear composition of this isotope.
Sol. Number of electrons = Atomic number = 17
Number of protons = Atomic number = 17
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number = 37 -
17 = 20
Electronic configuration of the isotope is K L M
2 8 7
Nucleus of the isotope contains 17 protons and 20 neutrons.
7.An element has 2 electrons is the M-shell. What is the electronic
configuration of the element and what is its atomic number ?
Sol. The 2 electrons in M-shell indicates that the K and L - shell must be
full. K - shell can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons while L-shell
can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons. Thus, the electronic
configuration of the element may be written as :
K L M
2 8 2
The total number of electrons is an atom of the element is 2 + 8 + 2 = 12
Therefore, atomic number of element is 12.
8.How will you find the valency of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium
?
Sol. (i) The atomic number of Cl is 17. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 7
Cl has 7 electrons in the valence shell. It needs one more electron to
complete its octet. Hence, its valency is 1.
(ii) The atomic number of S is 16. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 6
S has 6 electrons is the valence shell. It requires two more electrons to
complete its octet. Hence, its valency is 2.
(iii) The atomic number of Mg is 12. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 2
Mg has only 2 electrons in the valence shell. By losing these 2 electrons
it can attain octet of electrons in its outer most shell. Hence, it valency is
2.
"Structure Of
Atom"
⇒ First recorded evidence that atoms existed.
⇒ Using his theory, Dalton rationalized the various laws of chemical
combination
Dalton's theory was based on the premise that the atoms of different
elements could be distinguished by differences in their weights.
⇒ Limitations
o The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong , for, an atom can be
further subdivided into protons, neutrons and electrons.
o The atoms of same element are similar in all respects , but isotopes of
same element have different mass.
Dalton's theory was based on the premise that the atoms of different
elements could be distinguished by differences in their weights.
2. J J Thomson Experiments:
⇒ Discovered electrons in 1897.
⇒ Showed us that the atom can be split into even smaller parts.
His discovery was the first step towards a detailed model of the atom .
⇒ An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to presence of
protons) as well as negative charges (due to presence of electrons).
⇒ Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and
positive charges are equal in magnitude.
⇒ An electron is a negatively charged component of an atom which
exists outside the nucleus. Each electron carries one unit of negative
charge and has a very small mass as compared with that of a neutron or
proton.

JJ Thomson used cathode ray tubes to demonstrate that the cathode

ray responds to both magnetic and electric fields.
Since the ray was attracted to a positive electric plate placed over the
cathode ray tube (beam deflected toward the positive plate) he
determined that the ray must be composed of negatively charged
particles.
He called these negative particles "electrons."
Limitation: Model failed to explain how protons and electrons were
arranged in atom so close to each other.
Eugene Goldstein:

⇒ E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the presence of new radiations in a

gas discharge and called them canal rays. These rays were positively
charged radiations which ultimately led to the discovery of another sub-
atomic particle.
⇒ Used a Cathode Ray Tube to study "canal rays" which had electrical
and magnetic properties opposite of an electron
⇒ Canal Rays: The positively charged radiation produced in the
discharge tube at low pressure and high voltage are called canal rays.
Protons:
The canal rays have positively charged sub-atomic, particles known as
protons (p).
Q.1 What was the model of an atom proposed by Thomson? Q.2 What is
the nature of charge on electrons?
Q.3 What are canal rays ?
Q.4 State the nature of the constituents of canal rays.
3. Rutherford’s Scattering Experiments:

Experiment: Rutherford took a thin gold foil and made alpha particles ,
[ He2+ ] positively charged Helium fall on it.
⇒ Limitation: In Rutherford’s atomic model , Nucleus & electrons are
held together by electrostatic force of attraction which would lead to the
fusion between them. This does not happen in the atom.
Atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
Nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m
⇒ In 1932, James Chadwick proved that the atomic nucleus contained a
neutral particle which had been proposed more than a decade earlier by
Ernest Rutherford officially discovered the neutron in 1932,
⇒ Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.
A neutron is a subatomic particle contained in the atomic nucleus. It
has no net electric charge, unlike the proton's positive electric charge.
Q.1 Who discovered the nucleus of the atom?
Q.2 What is the charge on alpha particles ?
Q.3 Which observation of Rutherford’s scattering experiment
established the presence large empty space in atom?
Q.4 What is the nature of charge on nucleus of atom? Q.5 Who
discovered neutron ?
4. Sub Atomic Particles:

Protons & Neutrons collectively are known as NUCLEONS.

Q.1 Why is the relative mass of an electron is taken as negligible ?
Q.2 Give the actual masses of electron & proton in kg?
Q.3 What are nucleons?
5.Atomic Number & Mass Number:
“Atomic number of an element is defined as the number of unit
positive charges on the nucleus (nuclear charge) of the atom of that
element or as the number of protons present in the nucleus.”
Atomic number, Z = Number of unit positive charge on the nucleus
= Total number of unit positive charges carried by all protons present in
the nucleus.
= Number of protons in the nucleus (p)
= Number of electrons revolving in the orbits (e)
Eg :- Hydrogen – Atomic number = 1 (1 proton)
Helium - Atomic number = 2 (2 protons)
Mass number[ A] : It is defined as the sum of the number of protons &
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass Number = Mass of protons + Mass of neutrons
Eg :- Carbon – Mass number = 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons) Mass =
12u
Aluminium – Mass number = 27 (13 protons + 14 neutrons)
Mass = 27u
Q.1 What happens when an electron jumps from lower to higher energy
level?
Q.2 Which energy shell is nearest to the nucleus of an atom?
Q.3 Which energy shell has higher energy L or N ?
7.Electronic configuration & Valency:
Bohr and Bury Scheme - Important Rules
The outermost shell of an atom cannot accommodate more than 8
electrons, even if it has a capacity to accommodate more electrons.
This is a very important rule and is also called the OCTET RULE. The
presence of 8 electrons in the outermost shell makes the atom very
stable.
Q.1 An atoms has atomic number 13. What would be its configuration.
Q.2 What is octet rule?
Q.3 How many electrons M shell can accommodate?
Q.4 If an atom has complete K and L shell, what would be its atomic
number?
8. Isotopes & Isobars:

You are expected to know…………

⇒ The scientists who discovered subatomic particles.
⇒ Rutherford established the existence of nucleus.
⇒ Difference between Atomic number and Mass number
⇒ Electronic configuration & its relation with Valency.
⇒ Difference between Isotope and Isobar.
 Chapter Name: Structure of atom Top concepts
1. Ionisation of gases in the discharge tube proved that atoms have
subatomic particles
2. Summary of characteristics of electrons, protons and neutrons

3. Thomson model of atom : An atom is a uniform sphere of positive

charges (due to presence of protons) as well as negative charges (due to
presence of electrons). Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because
the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude
4. Limitations of Thomson model of atom: Model failed to explain
how protons and electrons were arranged in atom so close to each other
5. α -particles are charged particles having two units of positive charge
and 4 units of mass, i.e. they are doubly charged helium ions(He2+)
6. Observations predicted from α -particle scattering experiment by
Rutherford based on Thomson model of atom:
Rutherford expected that if the model proposed earlier by J.J Thomson,
according t0 which there is uniform distribution of positive and negative
charge, was correct then α-particle particles striking the gold atoms
would be uniformly deflected which was not the case. Since the -
particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not expect to see
large deflections
7. Selection of gold metal for Rutherford's α -particle scattering
experiment:
Since α -particles are easily absorbed by objects; he wanted to ensure
that alpha particles pass through foil without getting absorbed.
If α -particles were absorbed in matter then they would not be able to
give any useful information about insight of atom.
Only if α-particles were deflected then only it can give useful
information about insight of atom. Gold is easily malleable and can be
beaten into very thin sheets.
8. Observations made by Rutherford from α-particle scattering
experiment:
1. Most of the α-particles passed straight through gold foil without
suffering any deflection from their original path
2. Some of the α -particles were deflected by the foil by small angles
3. One out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound
9. Conclusions from Rutherford’s model of an atom
1. Most of the space between inside atoms is empty; hence it allows
the α particles to pass straight through it without any deflection
2. Very few particles were deflected from their path which suggests that
the positive charge of the atom occupies very little space
3. The total volume occupied by a nucleus is very small compared to the
total volume of the atom, as very few α particles are reflected by 180o
and all the positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated
in a very small volume within atom.
10. Rutherford’s model of an atom
1. There is positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus and
the entire mass of atom resides in the nucleus
2. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits
3. Size of nucleus is very small as compared to size of atom
11. Defects in Rutherford model of atom:
1. Rutherford had proposed that electrons move around a positively
charged nucleus at very high speed in circular orbi To remain in a
circular orbit electron would have to be accelerated centripetally
(tending to move toward a center). But according to electromagnetic
theory if charged body (electron) is accelerated around another charged
body (nucleus) then there would be continuous radiation of the moving
body (i.e. electron). This loss of energy would slow down speed of
electron and eventually electron would fall into nucleus. But
Rutherford’s model could not explain such a collapse
2. Rutherford had proposed that electrons revolve around the nucleus in
fixed orbi He did not specify the number of electrons in each orbit
12. Postulates put forward by Bohr regarding model of atom:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a limited number of orbits
called discrete orbits of electrons or also called as permissible orbits
2. While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons does not radiate
energy i.e. energy of an electron remains constant so long as it stays in a
given orbi Electrons present in different orbits have different energies
3. When an electron jumps from lower energy level to higher energy
level some energy is absorbed, while energy is released when electron
jumps from higher energy to lower one Orbits or shells are represented
by the letters K, L, M, N… or the numbers, n=1, 2, 3, 4…
13. Bohr-Bury scheme for distribution of electrons in different orbits
1. Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by 2n2 ,where n is the shell number i.e. first shell can
accommodate 2 electrons, second shell can accommodate 8 electrons,
third shell can accommodate 18 electrons and so on
2. Outermost orbit of an atom can accommodate a maximum number of
8 electrons
3. Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner
shells are filled i.e. the shells are filled in a step-wise manner
14. Combining capacity of an atom is called its valency
15. Outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell
16. Electrons present in valence shell is called valence electrons
17. If the outermost shell of an atom is completely, its valency is 0
18. Valency of elements having 1-4 electrons in outermost shell are
generally determined by the rule: Valency = Number of electrons in
outermost shell
19. Valency of elements having number of electrons in outermost shell
close to 8 is determined by the formula: Valency=8- Number of
electrons in outermost shell
20.Significance of valence electrons:
1. Valence electrons are responsible for chemical changes
2. Elements having same number of valence electrons in their atoms
possess similar chemical properties because chemical properties of an
element are determined by the number of valence electrons in an atom
3. Elements having different number of valence electrons in their atoms
possess different chemical properties
21. Atomic number(Z) is defined as the total number of protons present
in nucleus of an atom
22.Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons
23.Mass number (A) is defined as the sum of the total number of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
24. Isotopes:
♦Isotopes are the atoms of same element having same atomic number
but different mass number
♦Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have same
number of valence electrons
♦Isotopes have different physical properties like boiling point, melting
point etc because they have different mass number
♦Fractional atomic mass of elements are due fact that all elements have
isotope
Applications of isotopes:
1. Uranium isotope( 235U) is used in nuclear reaction 92
2. Cobalt isotope ( 60U ) is used to remove brain tumours and in their
treatment 27
3. Isotope of sodium ( 24Na)has been used to diagnose restricted
circulation of blood 11
25. Isobars are the atoms of different element with different atomic
number but same mass number
CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE OF ATOM IMPORTANT
QUESTIONS:-
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
Q.1. Neutrons can be found in all atomic nuclei except in one
case. Which is this atomic nucleus and what does it consists of?
Ans. Hydrogen atom. It consists of only one proton.
Q.2. 14. Mention the draw backs of Rutherford’s atomic model.
Ans.. 1. It could not explain the stability of an atom.

2. It could not explain the line spectrum of H- atom.

Q.3. What are the values of n and l for 2p orbital?

Ans. n=2 and l= 1
Q.4. Which of the following orbitals are not possible? 1p, 2s, 3f and 4d
Ans. 1p and 3f are not possible.
Q.5. Write the electronic configuration of the element having
atomic number 24.
Ans. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Q.6. Which orbital is non-directional ?
Ans. s- orbital
Q.7. Does the nature of cathode ray depend on the nature of gas in
the discharge tube or the electrode material ?
Ans. No. Neither nature of the gas nor electrode material
Q.8. What is the value of speed of light in vacuum?
Ans. 3.0x108m/s
Q.9. Write down the quantum numbers n and l for the following orbitals

1. 2p b. 3d c. 5f

Ans. a. n=2, l= 1 b. n= 3, l=2 c. n= 5, l=3

Q.10. Write the complete symbol for the atom with the given
atomic number (Z) and mass number(A). (a) Z = 17, A = 35 (b) Z = 92 ,
A = 233 35 233
Ans. (a) 17Cl (b) 92U
Q.1. Calculate wave number of yellow radiations having wavelength
of 5800 A0.
Ans. Wave number = 1/ wavelength
Wavelength = 5800 A0 = 5800 x 10-10 m
Wave number = 1/5800 x 10-10 m
= 1.72 x 106 m-1
Q.2. Using s,p,d and f notation, describe the orbital with the
following quantum numbers-
(a) n=1,l=0 (b) n=3, l=1 (c) n=4, l=2 (d) n=4, l=3
Ans. (a) 1s (b) 3p (c)4d (d) 4f
Q.3. (a)What is the lowest value of n that allows g orbitals to exist?
(b)An electron is in one of the 3d orbitals, Give the possible values of n,
l and ml for this electron.
Ans.(a) minimum value of n= 5
(b)n=3, l=2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
Q.4. Write down the quantum numbers n and l for the following orbitals

1. 2p b. 3d c. 5f

Ans. a. n=2, l= 1 b. n= 3, l=2 c. n= 5, l=3

Q.5. How many electrons in an atom have the following
quantum numbers?

1. n=4, ms= -1/2 b. n =3 , l=o

Ans. (a) 16 electrons (b) 2 electrons.

Q.6. Calculate the total number of angular nodes and radial
nodes present in 3p orbitals.
Ans. For 3p orbitals, n=3, l= 1 Number of angular nodes = l= 1
Number of radial nodes = n-l-1= 3-1-1= 1
Q.7. (i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom
is -2.18 x 10-18J/atom.
(ii) What is the energy associated with the fifth orbit
Ans. (i) En = -2.18 x 10-18/ n2
(ii) E5 = -2.18 x 10-18/ 52 = -8.72 x 10-20 J
Q.8. Explain , giving reasons, which of the following sets of quantum
numbers are not possible.
(a) n=0, l=0; ml = 0, ms= + ½ (c) n=1, l=0; ml = 0, ms= - ½
(b) n=1, l=1; ml =- 0, ms= + ½ (d) n=2, l=1; ml = 0, ms= + ½
Ans. (a) Not possible because n≠ 0
(b) Possible
(c) Not possible because when n=1, l≠1
(d) Possible
Q.9. Write 3 points of differences between electromagnetic waves and
matterwaves.

Q.10. Write the 3 points of difference between orbit and orbital.

Q.1. (a) What are nodes?
(b) Write the total number of nodes for a given value of ‘n’.
(c) The total number of nodes for 3s orbital is ------------------
Ans. (a)The region where probability density function reduces to zero.
(b)Total no. of nodes = (n-1).
(c)No. of nodes = 2
Q.2. Calculate the energy of one mole of photon of radiation whose
frequency is 4X1012 Hz.
Q.3. State de-Broglie concept of dual nature of matter. How do dual
nature of electron verified?
Ans. Just as light has dual nature, every material particle in motion has
dual nature (particle nature and wave nature). The wave nature has been
verified by Davisson and Germer’sexperiment whereas particle nature
by scintillation experiment.
Q.4. State (a)Hund’s Rule of maximum Multiplicity
(b) Aufbau Principle
(c) n+l rule
Ans.(a) Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same
subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to
that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.
(b)In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled inorder of their
increasing energies.
(c) Orbitals with lower value of (n+l) have lower energy.If two orbitals
have the same value of (n+l) then orbital with lower value of n will have
lower energy. It is also known as Bohr Burry’s rule
Q.5. Write down the quantum numbers n and l for the following orbital
a.2p b. 3d c. 5f
Ans. a. n=2, l= 1 b. n= 3, l=2 c. n= 5, l=3
Q.6. An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons.
Deduce
(i)the number of protons and
(ii) the electronic configuration of the element
(iii) Identify the element .
Ans.(i)For an atom to be neutral, the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons. ∴ Number of protons in the atom of the given
element = 29
(ii) The electronic configuration of the atom is 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p64s1
3d10
(iii) Copper
Q.7. What are the Characteristics of Canal Rays?
Ans. i. Positively charged particles (Canal Rays) depend up on the
nature of the gas present in the cathode-ray tube.
ii.The charge to mass ratio of the particles depend on the gas from which
they originate.
iii.Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the
fundamental unit of electrical charge.
iv.In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behavior of
positively charged particles is opposite to that observed for cathode rays.
Q.8. What is the significance of
(a) principal quantum number(n);
(b) azimuthal quantum number (l);
(c) magnetic quantum number (ml);
(d) spin quantum number (ms)?
Ans. a) It determines the size and energy of the orbital.
b) It determines the three dimensional shape of the
c) It gives the spatial orientation of the orbital.
d) It refers to orientation of the spin of the electron