Atomic theory 1

 Our current picture of the atom is developed by fascinating piecing together of different
bits of information obtained from different experiments.
 Dalton’s atomic theory represented a major breakthrough in the development of
chemistry.
 Science develops through a constant interplay between theory and experiment. And in
this way The Modern Atomic Theory was evolved.
 Michael Faraday observed that electricity causes chemical changes in matter.
 Michael Faraday’s reports demonstrated that matter was electrical in nature.
 G. J. Stoney proposed the existence of particles of electricity that he called electrons.

Cathode rays

 In gas discharge tubes when a screen was placed between the electrodes the
screen started to glow on the side facing the negative electrode (the cathode).
These rays thus called cathode rays, and had the following properties.
1. Normally travel in straight line
2. Cast shadows
3. Can turn a pinwheel placed in their path
4. Heat a metal foil placed between the electrodes
5. Can be bent by an electric and magnetic field in such direction as to
indicate that the particles are electrically charged negatively
6. Are always the same regardless of the nature of the material composing
the electrodes or the kind of residual gas
 J. J Thomson used a cathode ray tube to measure the ratio of the charge to mass of
the electron, and found it to be -1.76 × 108 coulombs/ gram. (for more
clarifications see Grade 12 physics text book)
 The charge on the electron was determined by R. A Milikan, through his clever
experiment called Oil drop experiment.(for more clarifications see Grade 12 text
book)
 Milikan’s experiment suggested the charge on the electron to be -1.6 × 10-19
coulombs.
 Once the charge had been measured, its mass was obtained from the already
known charge to mass ratio.
 Because negative particles are proven to be present in a matter, and because
ordinary matter is observed electrically neutral, it seems reasonable to suspect the
existence of positive charged particles in that matter as well.

Radioactivity

 The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of particles and radiations by certain unstable

elements is called Radioactivity.
 Was discovered by Henri Becquerel.

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Atomic theory 1

 Radioactive elements emit three important types of radiation

i. Alpha radiation, composed of He2+ ions called alpha particles.
ii. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons, in this instance, called beta particles.
iii. Gamma radiation, highly energetic, very penetrating light waves similar to X-
rays.
 X- Rays and gamma radiations only differ in their source. X- Rays are emitted
when electrons from the cathode (cathode rays) hit the anode in a gas
discharge tube in such way that the cathode ray can knock an electron from an
inner shell of the target metal atom this creates unstable electron configuration
and an electron from higher energy level drops into the half- filled orbital and
a photon corresponding in the x ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum is
emitted, while the source of gamma rays is unstable nuclei of radioactive
elements.

The nuclear atom

 Ernets Rutherford found that when a narrow beam of alpha particles was directed at a
thin gold foil, not all of them passed through the foil.
 Some of the alpha particles were scattered at large angles and a small fraction were even
deflected back toward the source.
 Rutherford concluded that the atom contained a very small, extremely dense positive
nucleus containing all of the protons and nearly the entire atom’s mass.
 Rutherford had observed that only about one half of the nuclear mass could be accounted
by the protons, suggesting the existence of electrically neutral particle but with a mass of
nearly the same as that of proton.
 These particles were confirmed by Chadwick, who bombarded beryllium with alpha
particles and found that highly energetic, uncharged particles were emitted.
 These particles called neutrons and have only a slightly larger than that of the proton.
 In summary, then, the atom is composed of dense nucleus, containing protons and
neutrons that provide nearly the entire mass of the atom, surrounded by in some fashion
by electrons distributed throughout the remaining volume of the atom.
 The nucleus is extremely very small compared to the atom itself.

Isotopes

 Contrary to Dalton’s hypothesis or postulate, not all atoms of the same element have
identical masses. These different kinds of atoms are referred to as isotopes.
 The properties of an element are almost entirely determined by the number of electrons.
Therefore, it is the atomic number or number of protons serves to distinguish one element
from another atom.
 Any mass difference between atoms of the same element arose from differences in the
number of neutrons.

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Atomic theory 1

 Most of naturally occurring elements occur as mixtures of isotopes.

 Atomic mass of an element is the average mass of the atoms of that element.
 If an element have n isotopes, of relative masses A1, A2…..An and fractional abundances of
f1, f2….fn then the average atomic mass of the element is:
A=A 1 f 1 + A 2 f 2 +…+ A n f n

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