Atomic theory 3

 De broglie’s postulate as it helped in the development of the quantum mechanical model

of atom, it helped also in the development of electron microscopes.
 Electrons moving with a speed such that their de Broglie wavelength is the same as the
wavelength X- rays will show a diffraction pattern the same as that of the X rays.
 Diffraction and interference effects are clearly visible when the dimensions included in
the experiment are less than or equal to the wavelength of the wave (including de Broglie
waves).
 As the de Broglie wavelength of heavier objects’ is very small their diffraction nd
interference effect cannot be seen clearly, even they are given a speed such that they
achieve their maximum speed.
 The mechanical description that includes the wave nature of particles is referred to as
Quantum Mechanics.
 De Broglie’s work applies only to force- free electrons.
 Erwin Schrödinger devised a theory that could be used to find the wave properties of
electrons in atoms and molecules.
 Werner Heisenberg showed from quantum mechanics that is impossible to know
simultaneously, with absolute precision, both the position and the momentum of a
particle such as an electron. This is called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
 Schrodinger’s work shows that an atom does not have a definite boundary, unlike in the
Bohr model.
 The point, at which the probability of finding an electron is greatest is the radius
calculated by Bohr away from the nucleus.

Quantum numbers and atomic Orbitals

 According to quantum mechanics, four quantum numbers must be used in order to

describe an electron.
 Three of the quantum numbers gives specification information about the Orbital.
 The remaining one quantum number gives information about the magnetic property of the
electron.
 An atomic orbital is the region of space where there is a high probability of finding the
electrons.
 Therefore, an atomic orbital has a definite shape.

Quantum numbers

i. Principal quantum number (n):

 Is the one at which the energy of an electron principally depends on
 It can have any positive integer value.
 It indicates the shell.
ii. Angular (Azimuthal) quantum number (l):

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Atomic theory 3

 Specifies the shape of the orbital from the n different shapes of a given n
quantum number:
 It can have any integer value from 0- n-1.
 The energy also depends on this quantum number, it increases as l increases.
 Indicates the Sub-shell.
 The different sub shells of a given shell are identified by letters s, p, d, f…
 To denote a sub shell within a shell we write n followed by the corresponding
letter for the Sub shell value.
iii. Magnetic quantum number (ms):
 It distinguishes orbitals of a given n and l, that is the same energy and shape
but different orientation in space,.
 The allowed values are the integers from –l to +l.
 For isolated atoms each orbitals of a given sub shell has the same energy.
iv. Spin quantum number:
 Refers to the two possible orientation of the spin axis of an electron:
 Possible values are +½ and -½.
 The circular motion of the electrons makes them act as they were tiny
magnets, and as they spin in opposite spin axis they will attract each other in
that orbital and tolerate the repulsive force between them that arise from their
having the same charges.
 The spin of electron is also responsible of the magnetic properties associated
with atoms and molecules.
 Electron spin magnetism was first observed in the Stern- Gelrlach
Experiment.

Shapes of the Orbitals

 S orbital has spherical symmetry whatever the value of n is.

 The three p orbital have the same basic shape that is two lobes arranged along a straight
line with 3 different orientations in space, whatever the value of n is.
 The five d orbital have more complicated shapes.

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