Applied Chemistry

Lecture 2
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron
configuration is the distribution of electrons of
an atom or molecule (or other physical structure)
in atomic or molecular orbital.
 Electronic configurations describe each electron as moving
independently in an orbital, in an average field created by all
other orbital
 According to the laws of quantum mechanics, for systems with
only one electron, a level of energy is associated with each
electron configuration and in certain conditions, electrons are
able to move from one configuration to another by the
emission or absorption of a quantum of energy, in the form of
a photon.
 Knowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is
useful in understanding the structure of the periodic table of
elements. This is also useful for describing the chemical bonds
that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps
explain the peculiar properties of lasers and semiconductors.
 Electron configuration was first conceived under the Bohr model of
the atom, and it is still common to speak of shells and sub-shells
despite the advances in understanding of the quantum-
mechanical nature of electrons.
 Like the energy states of Bohr, designated by n = 1, 2, 3..., these
states are also identified by numbers and specify the position and
energy of the electron. Thus there are in all four such
identification numbers called quantum numbers which fully
describe an electron in an atom. Each one of these refers to a
particular character.
 Principal Quantum Number ‘n
 This quantum number denotes the principal shell to which the
electron belongs. This is also referred to as major energy level.
It represents the average size of the electron cloud i.e., the
average distance of the electron from the nucleus. This is,
therefore, the main factor that determines the values of nucleus-
electron attraction, or the energy of the electron. In our earlier
discussion, we have found that the energy of the electron and its
distance from the nucleus for hydrogen atom are given by

 where n is the principal quantum number of the shell

 The principal quantum number ‘n’ can have non-zero, positive,
integral values n = 1, 2, 3... increasing by integral numbers to
infinity. Although the quantum number ‘n’ may theoretically
assume any integral value from 1 to ∝ , only values from 1 to 7
have so far been established for the atoms of the known elements
in their ground states.
 In a polyelectron atom or ion, the electron that has a higher
principal quantum number is at a higher energy level. An electron
with n = 1 has the lowest energy and is bound most firmly to the
nucleus.
 The letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q are also used to designate the
energy levels or shells of electrons with a n value of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 respectively. There is a limited number of electrons in an
atom which can have the same principal quantum number and is
given by 2n², where n is the principal quantum number
concerned. Thus,
 Azimuthal Quantum number ‘l ’

This is also called secondary or subsidiary quantum number. It defines the
spatial distribution of the electron cloud about the nucleus and describes the
angular momentum of the electron.

In other words, the quantum number l defines the shape of the orbital
occupied by the electron and the angular momentum of the electron. It is for
this reason that ‘l’ is sometimes referred to as orbital or angular quantum
number.

For any given value of the principal quantum number n, the azimuthal
quantum number l may have all integral values from 0 to n – 1, each of which
refers to an Energy sublevel or Sub-shell.

The total number of such possible sublevels in each principal level is

numerically equal to the principal quantum number of the level under
consideration
These sublevels are also symbolized by letters s, p, d, f etc. For
example, for principal quantum number n = 1, the only possible value
for l is 0 i.e., there is only one possible sub-shell i.e. s-sub-shell (n = 1,
l = 0). For n = 2,there are two possible values of l, l = 0 and l = 2 – 1 = 1.

This means that there are two sub-shells in the second energy shell with
n = 2. These sub shells designated as 2s and 2p. Similarly, when n = 3, l
can have three values i.e. 0, 1 and 2. Thus there are three sub shells in
third energy shell with designations 3s, 3p and 3d respectively.

For n = 4, there four possible values of azimuthal quantum number l (=

0, 1, 2, and 3) each representing a different level. In other words, the
fourth energy level consists of four sub shells which are designated as
4s, 4p, 4d and 4f. Thus for different values of principal quantum
numbers we have
 For a given value of principal quantum number the order of
increasing energy for different sub shells is
 Magnetic Quantum Number ‘m’
This quantum number has been proposed to account for the
splitting up of spectral lines . An application of a strong magnetic
field to an atom reveals that electrons with the values of principal
quantum number ‘n’ and of azimuthal quantum number ‘l’, may still
differ in their behavior.

They must, therefore, be differentiated by introducing a new quantum

number, the magnetic quantum number m. This is also called
Orientation Quantum Number because it gives the orientation or
distribution of the electron cloud.

For each value of the azimuthal quantum number ‘l’, magnetic

quantum number m, may assume all the integral values between + l to
– l through zero , Therefore for each value of l there will be
(2l + 1) values of ml.
 Thus when l = 0, m = 0 and no other value. This means that for
each value of principal quantum number ‘n’, there is only one
orientation for l = 0 (s orbital) or there is only one s orbital.

 For s orbital, there being only one orientation, it must be

spherically symmetrical about the nucleus. There is only one
spherically symmetrical orbital for each value of n whose radius
depends upon the value of n

 For l = 1 (p orbital), the magnetic quantum number m will have

three values : + 1, 0 and – 1; so there are three orientations for p
orbitals. These three types of p orbitals differ only in the value of
magnetic quantum number and are designated as px, py, pz
depending upon the axis of orientation.
 The subscripts x, y and z refer to the coordinate axes. In the
absence of a magnetic field, these three p orbitals are
equivalent in energy and are said to be three-fold degenerate
or triply degenerate.
 For l = 2 (d orbital), the magnetic quantum number are five (2
× 2 + 1); + 2, + 1, 0, – 1, – 2. Thus there are five possible
orientations for d orbitals which are equivalent in energy so
long as the atom is not under the influence of a magnetic field
and are said to be five-fold degenerate (Different orbitals
of equivalent energy are called degenerate orbitals and are
grouped together).
 The five d orbitals are designated as dxy, dyz, dzx, d x2 y 2,
dz2. These orbitals have complex geometrical shapes as
compared to orbitals. the shape of the dz orbitals is different
from others .

 When l = 3 (f orbital) the magnetic quantum number m can

have seven (2 × 3 + 1) values as + 3, , + 1, 0, – 1, – 2 and – 3.
These seven orientations give rise to a set of seven-fold
degenerate orbitals.

 These seven orbitals possess very complicated shapes and

orientation in space. The shapes of s, p and d orbitals only are
of interest to chemist .
Periodic trends in atomic properties
 When we first introduced the concept of the periodic table, we
noted that various observations about the behavior of atoms
led to its development.

 The reactivity of halogens and the inertness of rare gases are

examples of the periodic law that influence the making of light
bulbs.

 Using the understanding of orbitals and atomic structure we

have just gained, it is possible to explain some of these
periodic variations in greater detail
 Atomic size
 One important characteristic of atoms is their size. The measurement
of atomic size is sometimes complicated. There are two ways to
explore trends in the periodic table, within a group and within a
period. As we go down a group, we observe an increase in atomic size.
 As we go across a period, we observe a decrease.
 How do we understand this trend? The size of the atom is determined
largely by its valence electrons because they occupy the outermost
orbitals. Two factors are important:

 (1) the shell in which the valence electrons are found and

 (2) the strength of the interaction between the nucleus and the
valence electrons.
 As we go down a group in the table, the first of these factors is at
work. The size of the valence orbitals increases with n, so the size of
the atom increases as we go down the group.
 The trend in moving across a row is less intuitive. The distance
between a valence electron and the nucleus will tend to be greater if
there is a small effective nuclear charge.
 As we go across a period, we add electrons to the same sub shell.
These electrons do not shield each other very well, and the effective
nuclear charge increases because each increment in atomic number
adds a positively charged proton to the nucleus.
 The higher effective nuclear charge produces a stronger attraction
between the electrons and the nucleus. So the valence electrons are
drawn closer to the nucleus and the size of the atom decreases
 Ionization energy
 Another property of atoms that plays a role in the way they
interact in forming chemical bonds is the ease with which they lose
electrons. This property, called ionization
energy, can be measured by an experiment similar to that we
described earlier for the photoelectric effect. Ionization energy is
defined as the amount of energy we would have to supply to induce
the following reaction:

 To be more precise, the energy required for this reaction is the

first ionization energy. The energy needed to remove an additional
electron from the X+ cation, forming X2+, would be the second
ionization energy, and so on. We will use the term “ionization
energy” for the first ionization energy .
 Connections between periodicity and atomic structure can be seen
by looking at the way ionization energy varies across periods and
within groups of the table. Recall from our discussion of atomic
size that as we proceed across a period, the effective nuclear
charge increases.
 Not surprisingly, the ionization energy also generally increases
across a period. As we move down a group, the valence electrons
occupy larger and larger orbitals.
 As the valence electrons move farther from the nucleus, they
become easier to remove. So ionization energy decreases as we
move down a column in the periodic table. As we proceed up and
toward the right in the periodic table, the ionization energy
increase.
 We can also gain insight into atomic structure by looking at successive
ionization energies for the same element. For sodium, the first ionization
energy is among the lowest, but the second is much larger than that for
any neutral atom. For magnesium, the situation is quite different.
 The second ionization is still larger than the first because the effective
nuclear charge experienced by a valence electron is larger in the ion
than in the neutral atom. But the more dramatic change in ionization
energy lies between the second and third ionizations.
 The point at which this large jump occurs for each element is
highlighted. In each case, the largest increase in ionization energy occurs
when an electron is removed from a completely filled p sub shell.
 From this observation, we can see the unusual stability of that filled p
sub shell, and we can begin to appreciate why noble gas elements are so
unreactive. Filled sub shells of electrons are difficult to break up, and as
we’ll see, this fact will help us to understand chemical bonding.
 ELECTRON AFFINITY
 Ionization energy is defined as the energy required to remove an
electron from an atom, forming a positively charged cation. But we
also know that some atoms will routinely pick up an electron to form
a negatively charged anion.

X(g) + e- : X-(g)

 We can define a property called electron affinity as the amount of

energy we would have to supply to induce this reaction. Removing an
electron from a neutral atom always requires an input of energy
because the atom will not simply eject electrons on its own. So
ionization energies in that case are always positive.
 But electron affinity values can be either positive or negative. If the
resulting anion is stable, then energy will actually be released as the
electron is added.
 But our definition of electron affinity says it is the amount of energy
that must be supplied to form the anion. If energy is being released,
we might say that we must “supply a negative amount of energy,” so
the electron affinity value will be negative.

 If the electron affinity is positive, that means that the anion formed
is not stable; in this case, we would need to supply energy to force
the atom to accept the electron. Most electron affinity values are
negative.

 This definition of electron affinity may seem a little twisted because

it is at odds with the normal meaning of the word “affinity.” Under
our definition, if the atom “wants” the electron, its electron affinity
value is negative.
 But we define the signs in this way because it is consistent with the
conventions usually followed when discussing energy in chemistry,
physics, and engineering. Energy added to an atom is positive, and
energy released by an atom is negative.

 Electron affinity values display periodic trends based on electron

configuration, much like the other properties we’ve been
considering.

 The most immediate conclusion might be that electron affinity

values vary more erratically than ionization energies. Still, it
should be evident from the figure that as we move from bottom to
top or from left to right in the periodic table, the electron affinity
tends to become more negative.
 The more positive the affinity of atom, the more unfavorable the
reaction is due to electron electron repulsion
 Thus in terms of the x, y scheme we have been using for
remembering general trends, electron affinity becomes more
negative with increasing x or y, much like ionization energy.

 It is customary to think of the trend in electron affinity in this

way, even though the value is actually becoming algebraically
smaller as it gets more negative.

 That’sbecause the more negative the electron affinity

becomes, the more stable the anion will be.
 In general, electron affinity increases (or becomes more negative)
from left to right across a period. This is due to increasing
effective nuclear charge.
 In general, electron affinity decreases (or becomes less negative)
from top to bottom down a group.
 Down a group, the atomic radii increases, meaning these electrons
are farther away from the nucleus and thus experience less of an
electron-nucleus attraction.
 Along with this, however, because the valence shells are larger as
atomic radii increases, the electrons in those valence shells do not
have to be as close to one another and so they do not experience
electron-electron repulsions as much
 Electronegativity.
 The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself is known as electro negativity.

 It is a dimensionless property because it is only a tendency. It

basically indicates the net result of the tendencies of atoms in
different elements to attract the bond-forming electron pairs. We
measure electro negativity on several scales.

 The most commonly used scale was designed by Linus Pauling.

According to this scale, fluorine is the most electronegative element
with a value of 4.0 and cesium is the least electronegative element
with a value of 0.7.
Periodic Trends in the Electro negativities of
Elements
 As we move across a period from left to right the nuclear charge
increases and the atomic size decreases, therefore the value of
electronegativity increases across a period in the modern periodic
table.
 For example, the electronegativity trend across period 3 in the
periodic table is depicted below.
 There is an increase in the atomic
number as we move down the
group in the modern periodic table.
 The nuclear charge also increases
but the effect of the increase in
nuclear charge is overcome by the
addition of one shell.
 Hence, the value of electronegativity
decreases as we move down the
group.
 For example, in the halogen group as
we move down the group from
fluorine to astatine the
electronegativity value decreases and
it is shown in the diagram below.
 It is a general observation that metals show a lower value of
electronegativity as compared to the non-metals. 
 Therefore, metals are electropositive and non-metals are
electronegative in nature.
 The elements in period two differ in properties from their
respective group elements due to the small size and higher value
of electronegativity.
 The elements in the second period show resemblance to the
elements of the next group in period three.
 This happens due to a small difference in their electronegativities.
This leads to the formation of a diagonal relationship.
Most and Least Electronegative Elements

 Fluorine is the most electronegative element on the periodic table.

Its electronegativity value is 3.98. Cesium is the least
electronegative element. Its electronegativity value is 0.79.
 Electro positivity is the exact opposite of electronegativity,
therefore, we can say that Cesium is the most electropositive
element.
 Metals have electronegativities less than 2.0. The least
electronegative elements are cesium (Cs) and francium (Fr), with
electronegativity values of 0.7.
 Impact of Electronegativity on Covalent Bonding
 The strength of a covalent bond is highly dependent on
the electronegativities of the two bonded atoms (especially
the difference in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms).
 Homonuclear diatomic molecules feature relatively ‘pure’ covalent
bonds since the electronegativities of the bonded atoms are the
same (resulting in the bonded pair of electrons being almost
equidistant from the two bonded nuclei).
 Examples of such covalent bonds can be seen in H2 molecules,
Cl2 molecules, and O2 molecules. 
 On the other hand, the covalent bonds between two species
of varying electronegativities tend to become polarized.

 This occurs because the more electronegative atom pulls the bond

pair of electrons closer to itself, developing a partially negative
charge in the process (which is usually denoted by the symbol -𝛿).

 At the same time, the more electropositive atom develops a partial

positive charge (denoted by +𝛿). These partial charges are
responsible for the polarity of the chemical bond. 
Bonds Between Highly Electronegative and
Highly Electropositive Atoms

In the covalent bonds featuring a large difference in

the electronegativities of the bonded atoms, it is not uncommon for the
more electronegative atom to gain complete control over the bond pair
of electrons, resulting in the formation of two ions. Here, the
more electronegative atom forms an anion and the
more electropositive atom becomes a cation.
It is important to understand that all covalent bonds between dissimilar
species have some ionic character. Similarly, all ionic bonds have some
covalent character as well. The ionic character of the covalent bond is
determined by the difference in electronegativity.
 When the electronegativities of the bonded species are not very
different, the bond will be more covalent than ionic.
However, when there is a large enough difference in the
electronegativities of the bonded atoms, the bond becomes polar
enough to be considered more ionic than covalent. 
 Electronegativity table

 Electronegativity is a chemical
property that describes the power
of an atom in a molecule to attract
electrons to itself. There is a large
difference in electronegativity for
atoms from the left- and right-
hand sides of the periodic table. 
 Electronegativity is an important
quantity in determining the nature
of bonds between elements and
will be considered as the main
factor in chemical bonding.
 The periodic table of elements
with the electronegativity table is
given .
 Periodic properties of elements:

 One reason the periodic table of the elements is so useful is that it

is a means of arranging elements according to their similar
properties. This is what is meant by periodicity or periodic table
trends.
 There are multiple ways of grouping the elements, but they are
commonly divided into metals, semimetals (metalloids), and
nonmetals.
 You'll find more specific groups, like transition metals, rare earths,
alkali metals, alkaline earth, halogens, and noble gasses.
 Alkali Metal Properties

The alkali metals exhibit many of the physical properties common to metals,
although their densities are lower than those of other metals. Alkali metals have one
electron in their outer shell, which is loosely bound.
This gives them the largest atomic radii of the elements in their respective periods.
Their low ionization energies result in their metallic properties and high reactivates.
An alkali metal can easily lose its valence electron to form the univalent cation.
Alkali metals have low electronegativities. They react readily with nonmetals,
particularly halogens.

Common Properties

1. Lower densities than other metals

2. One loosely bound valence electron
3. Largest atomic radii in their periods
4. Low ionization energies
5. Low electronegativities
6. Highly reactive
Alkaline earth metals properties:
The alkaline earth metals are one group of elements on the periodic table.
The alkaline earths are the elements located in Group IIA of the periodic
table. This is the second column of the table. The list of elements that are
alkaline earth metals is short. In order of increasing atomic number, the
six element names and symbols are:
Beryllium (Be)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)
Strontium (Sr)
Barium (Ba)
Radium (Ra)
If element 120 is produced, it will most likely be a new alkaline earth
metal.
Presently, radium is the only one of these elements that is radioactive with
no stable isotopes. Element 120 would be radioactive, too. All of the
alkaline earths except magnesium and strontium have at least one
radioisotope that occurs naturally.
Common Alkaline Earth Properties

 Two electrons in the outer shell and a full outer electron s shell
 Low electron affinities
 Low electronegativities
 Relatively low densities
 Relatively low melting points and boiling points, as far as metals
are concerned
 Typically malleable and ductile. Relatively soft and strong.
 The elements readily form divalent cations (such as Mg2+and Ca2+).
 The alkaline earth metals are very reactive, although less so than
the alkali metals. Because of their high reactivity, the alkaline
earths are not found free in nature. However, all of these elements
do occur naturally. They are common in a wide variety of
compounds and minerals.

 These elements are shiny and silver-white as pure metals, although

they usually appear dull because they react with air to form
surface oxide layers.

 All the alkaline earths, except for beryllium, form corrosive

alkaline hydroxides.

 All of the alkaline earths react with halogens to form halides. The
halides are ionic crystals, except for beryllium chloride, which is
a covalent compound
 Transition metals
 Of all the groups of elements, the transition metals can be the most
confusing to identify because there are different definitions of which
elements should be included. A transition metal is any element with a
partially filled d or f electron sub-shell. 

 The transition elements are located in groups IB to VIIIB of the periodic

table. In other words, the transition metals are elements:

 21 (scandium) through 29 (copper)

 39 (yttrium) through 47 (silver)

 57 (lanthanum) through 79 (gold)

 89 (actinium) through 112 (copernicium) - which includes the lanthanides

and actinides
Transition Metal Properties
Low ionization energies
Positive oxidation states
Multiple oxidation states, since there is a low energy gap between them
Very hard
Exhibit metallic luster
High melting points
High boiling points
High electrical conductivity
High thermal conductivity
Malleable
Form colored compounds, due to d-d electronic transitions
Five d orbitals become more filled, from left to right on the periodic table
Typically form paramagnetic compounds because of the unpaired d
electrons
Typically exhibit high catalytic activity
 Basic Metals
 Most of the elements on the periodic table are metals, including
gold, silver, platinum, mercury, uranium, aluminum, sodium, and
calcium. Alloys, such as brass and bronze, also are metals.

 Location of Metals on the Periodic Table:

 Metals are located on the left side and the middle of the periodic
table. Group IA and Group IIA (the alkali metals) are the most
active metals.
 The basic metals make up the element to the right of the transition
metals. The bottom two rows of elements beneath the body of the
periodic table are the lanthanides and actinides, which are also
metals.
Common Properties
 Shiny "metallic" appearance
 Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
 High melting points
 High densities
 Large atomic radii
 Low ionization energies
 Low electronegativities
 Usually, high deformation
 Malleable
 Ductile
 Thermal conductors
 Electrical conductors
Semi-Metals
 Between the metals and nonmetals is a group of elements known as
either the semimetals or the metalloids, which are elements that
have properties intermediate between those of the metals and
nonmetals
 Elements That Are Metalloids:
 The metalloids are generally considered to be:
 Boron
 Silicon
 Germanium
 Arsenic
 Antimony
 Tellurium
 Polonium (usually recognized, sometimes considered a metal)
 Astatine (sometimes recognized, otherwise seen as a halogen)
 Element 117, tennessine, has not been produced in sufficient
amounts to verify its properties but is predicted to be a metalloid.
 Some scientists consider neighboring elements on the periodic
table to either be metalloids or to have metalloid characteristics.
 An example is carbon, which may be considered either a nonmetal
or a metalloid, depending on its allotrope. The diamond form of
carbon looks and behaves as a nonmetal, while the graphite
allotrope has a metallic luster and acts as an electrical
semiconductor and so is a metalloid.
 Phosphorus and oxygen are other elements that have both
nonmetallic and metalloid allotropes.
 Selenium is considered to be a metalloid in environmental
chemistry.
 Other elements that may behave as metalloids under certain
conditions are hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, tin, bismuth, zinc,
gallium, iodine, lead, and radon.
 The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids
are between those of the metals and nonmetals, so the metalloids
exhibit characteristics of both classes. Silicon, for example,
possesses a metallic luster, yet it is an inefficient conductor and is
brittle.
 The reactivity of the metalloids depends on the element with
which they are reacting. For example, boron acts as a nonmetal
when reacting with sodium yet as a metal when reacting with
fluorine.
 The boiling points, melting points, and densities of the metalloids
vary widely. The intermediate conductivity of metalloids means
they tend to make good semiconductors.
 Commonalities Between Metalloids

List of the properties common among metalloids:

Electronegativities between those of metals and nonmetals
Ionization energies between those of metals and nonmetals
Possession of some characteristics of metals, some of nonmetals
Reactivity depending on the properties of the other elements in
the reaction
Often good semiconductors
Often having a metallic luster, although they may have
allotropes that appear nonmetallic
Usually behaving as nonmetals in chemical reactions
Ability to form alloys with metals
Usually brittle
Usually solids under ordinary conditions
 Nonmetal:
A nonmetal is simply an element that does not display
the properties of a metal.
 It is not defined by what it is, but by what it is not.
 It doesn't look metallic, can't be made into a wire, pounded into
shape or bent, doesn't conduct heat or electricity well, and doesn't
have a high melting or boiling point.
 The nonmetals are in a minority on the periodic table, mostly
located on the right-hand side of the periodic table.
 The exception is hydrogen, which behaves as a nonmetal at room
temperature and pressure and is found on the upper left corner of
the periodic table. Under conditions of high pressure, hydrogen is
predicted to behave as an alkali metal.
Common Properties

 High ionization energies

 High electronegativities
 Poor thermal conductors
 Poor electrical conductors
 Brittle solids—not malleable or ductile
 Little or no metallic luster
 Gain electrons easily
 Dull, not metallic-shiny, although they may be colorful
 Lower melting points and boiling point than the metals
Halogens:
 The halogens are a group of elements on the periodic table. It is
the only element group that includes elements capable of existing
in three of the main states of matter at room temperature: solid,
liquid, and gas.
 The word halogen means "salt-producing," because halogens react
with metals to produce many important salts.
 In fact, halogens are so reactive that they do not occur as free
elements in nature. Many, however, are common in combination
with other elements
 The halogens are located in Group VIIA of the periodic table
Common Properties:
 They have very high electronegativities.
 They have seven valence electrons (one short of a stable octet).
 They are highly reactive, especially with alkali metals and alkaline
earths. Halogens are the most reactive nonmetals.
 Because they are so reactive, elemental halogens are toxic and
potentially lethal. Toxicity decreases with heavier halogens until
you get to astatine, which is dangerous because of its radioactivity.
 The state of matter at STP changes as you move down the group.
Fluorine and chlorine are gases, while bromine is a liquid and
iodine and astatine are solids.
 It is expected that element 117 will also be a solid under ordinary
conditions. The boiling point increases moving down the group
because the Van der Waals force is greater with increases size and
atomic mass. 
Noble Gas Properties
 The noble gases are group 18 on the periodic table, which is the
column of elements on the right side of the table.
 There are seven noble gas elements: helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon, radon, and oganesson.
 Noble gases are the least reactive chemical elements.
 They are nearly inert because the atoms have a full valence
electron shell, with little tendency to accept or donate electrons
to form chemical bonds.
Common Properties
 Fairly nonreactive
 Complete outer electron or valence shell (oxidation number = 0)
 High ionization energies
 Very low electronegativities
 Low boiling points (all monatomic gases at room temperature)
 No color, odor, or flavor under ordinary conditions (but may form
colored liquids and solids)
 Nonflammable
 At low pressure, they will conduct electricity and fluoresce
 Lanthanide
 
 The lanthanides are a group of 15 chemical elements, with atomic
numbers 57 through 71.
 All of these elements have one valence electron in the 5d shell.
 The elements share properties in common with the first element in
the group -- lanthanum.
 The lanthanides are reactive, silver-colored metals.
 The most stable oxidation state for lanthanide atoms is +3, but the
+2 and +4 oxidation states are also common.
 Although the lanthanides are sometimes called the rare earths, the
elements are not particularly rare. However, they are difficult to
separate from one another.
 Common properties
Silvery-white
 metals that tarnish when exposed to air, forming their oxides.
Relatively soft metals. Hardness increases somewhat with higher atomic

number.
Moving from left to right across the period (increasing atomic number), the

radius of each lanthanide 3+ ion steadily decreases. This is referred to as
'lanthanide contraction'.
High melting points and boiling points and very reactive.

React with water to liberate hydrogen (H2), slowly in cold/quickly upon

heating. Lanthanides commonly bind to water.
React with H+ (dilute acid) to release H2 

React in an exothermic reaction with H2.

Burn easily in air.

Their compounds are generally ionic.

At elevated temperatures, many rare earths ignite and burn vigorously.

Most rare earth compounds are strongly paramagnetic.

Many rare earth compounds fluoresce strongly under ultraviolet light.

Actinides
 Actinides share the following properties:
 All are radioactive. These elements have no stable isotopes.
 Actinides are highly electropositive.
 The metals tarnish readily in air. These elements are pyrophoric
(spontaneously ignite in the air), particularly as finely divided
powders.
 Actinides are very dense metals with distinctive structures.
Numerous allotropes can be formed—plutonium has at least six
allotropes. The exception is actinium, which has fewer crystalline
phases.
 They react with boiling water or dilute acid to release hydrogen
gas.
 Actinide metals tend to be fairly soft. Some can be cut with a
knife.
 These elements are malleable and ductile.
 All the actinides are paramagnetic.
 All these elements are silver-colored metals that are solid at room
temperature and pressure.
 Actinides combine directly with most nonmetals.
 The actinides successively fill the 5f sublevel. Many actinide
metals have properties of both d block and f block elements.
Calculations using moles and molar
masses
We’ve seen the importance of the concept of the mole when
dealing with chemical reactions involving macroscopic quantities
of material. But generally it is not possible to measure the number
of moles in a sample directly because that would imply that we can
count molecules. Molar masses provide a crucial connection and
allow us to convert from masses, which can be measured easily, to
numbers of moles. The mass and the number of moles are really
just two different ways of expressing the same information—the
amount of a substance present. The molar mass functions much
like a unit conversion between them, allowing us to go from mass
to moles or from moles to mass. The following examples illustrate
typical uses of molar mass.
Example problems:
1. A sample of the explosive TNT (C7H5N3O6) has a mass of 650.5
g. How many moles of TNT are in this sample? How many
molecules is this?

2. A demolition engineer is planning to use the explosive

ethylenedinitramine (C2H6N4O4, also known as halite) to bring
down an abandoned building. Calculations show that
315 moles of the compound will provide the necessary explosive
force. How many pounds of C2H6N4O4 should be used?
3- The explosive known as RDX contains 16.22% carbon, 2.72%
hydrogen, 37.84% ,nitrogen, and 43.22% oxygen by mass.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

4- Nitroglycerin contains 15.87% C, 2.22% H, 18.50% N, and 63.41% O

by mass. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

5- Alloys of palladium and nickel are often used in the manufacture

of electronic connectors. One such alloy contains 70.8 mol % Pd
(106) and 29.2 mol % Ni (58). Express the composition of this alloy
in weight percentage.
6- Aqueous solutions of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) can be used in
the synthesis of hydrazine (N2H4). Hydrazine has often been
used as a rocket fuel, and a derivative of hydrazine is used as a
fuel for engines in the orbital maneuvering system of the space
shuttle. A solution is prepared by dissolving 45.0 g of NaClO in
enough water to produce exactly 750 mL of solution. What is the
molarity of the solution?

7- A chemist requires 1.5 M hydrochloric acid, HCl, for a series of

reactions. The only solution available is 6.0 M HCl. What volume
of 6.0 M HCl must be diluted to obtain 5.0 L of 1.5 M HCl?

8- If 2.70 mL of 12.0 M NaOH is diluted to a volume of 150.0 mL,

what is the final concentration?
THANKYOU