Name : Barba, Samantha Anne B.

Section : STEM 101

EXCERCISES NO 2: QUANTUM NUMBERS

A. Directions: Define and give example of each of the following

1. The Principal Quantum Number (nn)

The principal quantum number, nn, designates the principal electron shell.
Because n describes the most probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus, the
larger the number n is, the farther the electron is from the nucleus, the larger the size
of the orbital, and the larger the atom is. n can be any positive integer starting at 1,
as n=1n=1 designates the first principal shell (the innermost shell). The first principal
shell is also called the ground state, or lowest energy state. This explains why nn can
not be 0 or any negative integer, because there exists no atoms with zero or a negative
amount of energy levels/principal shells. When an electron is in an excited state or it
gains energy, it may jump to the second principle shell, where n=2n=2. This is called
absorption because the electron is "absorbing" photons, or energy. Known as emission,
electrons can also "emit" energy as they jump to lower principle shells, where n
decreases by whole numbers. As the energy of the electron increases, so does the
principal quantum number, e.g., n = 3 indicates the third principal shell, n = 4 indicates
the fourth principal shell, and so on.

· How to determine principal Quantum number?

Each element has a set of four quantum numbers that describes the energy, shape,
orientation in space and spin of its electrons. These numbers are found by solving
Schroedinger's equation and solving them for specific wave functions, also known as
atomic orbitals. There is an easy way to find the individual quantum numbers for
elements simply by using the periodic table. The table is set up like a grid, with the
vertical being periods and the horizontal the groups. Quantum numbers are found
using the periods of the chart.

Look at the Periodic Table of Elements and find the element that you
want to know the quantum number for. Find the principal number, which
denotes the element's energy, by looking in which period the element is
found. For example, sodium is in the third period of the table, so its
principal quantum number is 3.
· Electronic configuration
The arrangement of electrons in energy levels around an atomic nucleus,
also known as electronic configuration or electronic structure. According to
the older shell atomic model, electrons occupy various levels ranging from
the first shell, K, closest to the nucleus, to the seventh shell, Q, farthest
from the nucleus. A more refined quantum-mechanical model divides the
K–Q shells into a set of orbitals (see orbital), each of which can only be
occupied by a pair of electrons. In the shell atomic model, the electronic
configuration of an atom can be expressed by indicating the number of
electrons in each shell beginning with the first. For example, sodium
(atomic number 11) has its 11 electrons distributed as follows: the K and L
shells are completely filled with 2 and 8 electrons, respectively, while the M
shell is only partially filled with one electron.

2. Angular quantum number (ℓ)

-The angular momentum quantum number (l) represents the general shape or region
that an electron occupies—its orbital shape. The value of l is determined by the value of
the fundamental quantum number n. The angular momentum quantum number can
have positive values of zero to (n − 1). When n = 2, l can be either 0 or 1.
· How to determine the value of angular quantum number
-The allowed values of quantized entities are expressed using quantum numbers. The
principal quantum number n labels the basic states of a system and is given by n =
1,2,3, . . . .
* The angular momentum magnitude is given by
ℎ
𝐿 = √𝑙(𝑙 + 1) 2𝜋 (𝑙 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1)

, where l is the quantum number of angular momentum. The direction of angular

momentum is quantized in the sense that its component along a magnetic field-defined
axis known as the z-axis is given by
ℎ
𝐿𝑍 = 𝑚𝑙 2𝜋 (𝑚𝑙 = −𝑙, −𝑙 + 1, … 𝑙 − 1, 𝑙)
, where Lz is the angular momentum's z-component and ml is the angular momentum
projection quantum number. Similarly, the intrinsic spin angular momentum S of an
electron is given by
ℎ
𝑆 = √𝑠(𝑠 + 1) 2𝜋 (𝑠 = 1⁄2 for electrons),

The spin quantum number is denoted by s. Finally, the spin direction of an electron
along the z-axis is given by
ℎ 1 1
𝑆𝑍 = 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 (𝑚𝑠 = − 2 , + 2)

, where Sz is the spin angular momentum's z-component and ms is the spin projection
quantum number. Projection of spin
1
𝑚𝑠 = +
2

is referred to as spin up, whereas

1
𝑚𝑠 = − 2

3. Magnetic quantum number

-The magnetic quantum number describes the energy levels available within a subshell and
yields the orbital angular momentum projection along a given axis. The range of ml values is
from to l, with integer steps between them. Because the s subshell (l = 0) only has one orbital,
the ml of an electron in a s subshell will always be 0. Because the p subshell (l = 1) contains
three orbitals (depicted as three "dumbbell-shaped" clouds in some systems), the ml of an
electron in a p subshell will be 1, 0, or 1. The d subshell (l = 2) has five orbitals, each with a ml
value of 2, 1, 0, 1, and 2. The orbital orientation is associated with the value of the ml quantum
number.

· How to determine Magnetic quantum number?

-Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) = -l,..., 0,..., +l Specifies the spatial orientation of an
orbital with a given energy (n) and shape (l). This number divides the subshell into
individual orbitals that hold the electrons; each subshell has 2l+1 orbitals.

· Hund’s rule
-According to Hund's rule, a larger total spin state of an atom can sometimes make the
atom more stable. This rule is fairly reliable (with a few exceptions) for determining the
state of a given excited electron configuration. Friedrich Hund discovered it in the year
1925. Hund's rule states that:
Hund's rule states that:
 1. Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly
occupied.

2. All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to maximize
total spin).
Hund's rule is also known as the Rule of Maximum Multiplicity.

According to the first rule, electrons always enter an empty orbital before pairing up.
Electrons repel one another due to their negative charge. Electrons will occupy their
own orbital rather than sharing one with another in order to minimize repulsion.
Electrons in singly occupied orbitals are less effectively shielded from the nucleus,
according to quantum-mechanical calculations.

4.Electron spin quantum number

Electron Spin, also known as Spin Quantum Number, is the fourth quantum number
assigned to electrons in atoms and molecules. The electron spin, denoted as ms, is
made up of either upward (ms=+1/2) or downward (ms=1/2) arrows.

· How to determine Electron spin quantum number?

An angular momentum quantum number for spin s of 1/2 characterizes a spin-1/2
particle. In Schrödinger-Pauli equation solutions, angular momentum is quantized by
this number, resulting in total spin angular momentum.

1 1 √3
S = h√2 (2 + 1) = ℎ.
2

The fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum is observed as a doublet, corresponding to

two possibilities for the z-component of angular momentum, where for any given
direction z:
1
𝑆𝑧 = ± 2 ℎ

whose solution has only two possible z-components for the electron. In the electron,
the two different spin orientations are sometimes called "spin-up" or "spin-down".
An electron's spin property would produce a magnetic moment, which was required for
the fourth quantum number. The formula for the electron spin magnetic moment is:
𝑒
μ𝑠 = − 2𝑚 𝑔 𝑆

Where

• e is the charge of the electron

• g is the Landé g-factor

and by the equation:

1
𝜇𝑧 = ± 2 𝑔ℎ𝐵

where 𝜇𝐵 is the Bohr magneton.

When an atom has an even number of electrons, the spin of each electron in each orbital is
oriented opposite to that of its immediate neighbor (s). Many atoms, on the other hand, have
an odd number of electrons or an arrangement of electrons with an unequal number of "spin-
up" and "spin-down" orientations. These atoms or electrons are said to have unpaired spins,
which can be detected through electron spin resonance.
References :
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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia.(2018, December20) “electronic configuration"
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MrHren.(2017, January20)Angular Quantum Number. Retrieved from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/quantum-numbers/

OpenStax College.(2016, March) How to determine the value of angular quantum number
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Raghvendra Gopal.(2021, October18) What does Hund’s Rule mean?

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Liza Chu (UCD), Sharon Wei (UCD), Mandy Lam (UCD), Lara Cemo (UCD).(2020,
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