1.) What are the Four Quantum Numbers? Describe each.

Show tables and formulas and

examples.

In quantum mechanics, the four quantum numbers are essential to describe the properties of a
quantum system. These numbers are used to determine the energy, spin, and spatial distribution
of particles and are crucial for understanding the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and
subatomic level. In this answer, we will discuss each of the four quantum numbers, provide
tables and formulas, and offer examples to help illustrate their significance.

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

The principal quantum number (n) is the number that determines the energy level of an electron
in an atom. It is a positive integer that increases as the energy level of the electron increases. The
principal quantum number is used to determine the number of energy levels that an electron can
occupy in an atom.

Principal Quantum Number (n) Energy Level

1 Ground state
2 First excited state
Second excited
3
state
4 Third excited state
… …

For example, the first energy level of hydrogen has a principal quantum number of n = 1, and it
can accommodate one electron. The second energy level has a principal quantum number of n =
2, and it can accommodate two electrons, and so on.

2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

The angular momentum quantum number (l) is a positive integer that determines the orbital
shape of an electron in an atom. It is related to the number of nodal planes in the electron’s
orbital. The angular momentum quantum number ranges from 0 to n-1, where n is the principal
quantum number.

Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) Orbital Shape

0 S-orbital
1 P-orbital
2 D-orbital
3 F-orbital
… …

For example, the ground state of hydrogen has an angular momentum quantum number of l = 0,
and it has a spherical shape. The first excited state of hydrogen has an angular momentum
quantum number of l = 1, and it has a p-orbital shape.
 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

The magnetic quantum number (m) is an integer that determines the orientation of an electron’s
orbital in space. It is related to the z-component of the electron’s spin. The magnetic quantum
number ranges from -l to +l.

Magnetic Quantum Number (m) Orientation

-l Perpendicular to the orbital plane
-l/2 Parallel to the orbital plane
+l/2 Perpendicular to the orbital plane
+l Parallel to the orbital plane

For example, the ground state of hydrogen has a magnetic quantum number of m = 0, which
means that the electron’s orbital is symmetrical around the nucleus. The first excited state of
hydrogen has a magnetic quantum number of m = -1, which means that the electron’s orbital is
shifted 90 degrees away from the nucleus.

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)

The spin quantum number (s) is a quantum mechanical property that describes the intrinsic
angular momentum of a particle. It is a half-integer that can take on the values of +1/2 and -1/2.
The spin quantum number determines the spin of an electron, which is a fundamental property of
particles that governs their behavior in magnetic fields.

Spin Quantum Number (s) Value

+1/2 Alignment
-1/2 Anti-alignment

For example, the ground state of hydrogen has a spin quantum number of s = +1/2, which means
that the electron’s spin is aligned with the magnetic field. The first excited state of hydrogen has
a spin quantum number of s = -1/2, which means that the electron’s spin is anti-aligned with the
magnetic field.

2.) What are the three rules governing Electronic Configuration? Describe each. Give examples.

The three rules governing electronic configuration are the Aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion
principle, and Hund’s rule. These rules help in determining how electrons are distributed in the
atomic orbitals of an atom.

1. Aufbau principle: This principle states that electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first
before moving to higher energy orbitals. In other words, electrons occupy orbitals in
order of increasing energy. The Aufbau principle is based on the idea that electrons are
negatively charged particles and are attracted to the positively charged nucleus.
According to this principle, the order of filling orbitals is determined by their increasing
energy levels.
For example, let’s consider the electronic configuration of carbon (atomic number 6). The first
two electrons will occupy the 1s orbital, as it is the lowest energy orbital. The next two electrons
will then fill the 2s orbital. Finally, the remaining two electrons will occupy the 2p orbital.

2. Pauli exclusion principle: This principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have
the same set of four quantum numbers. The four quantum numbers are principal quantum
number (n), azimuthal quantum number (l), magnetic quantum number (m), and spin
quantum number (s). The Pauli exclusion principle ensures that each electron has a
unique set of quantum numbers, which means that no two electrons can occupy the same
orbital with identical quantum numbers.

For example, let’s consider nitrogen (atomic number 7). The first seven electrons will fill up the
1s and 2s orbitals according to the Aufbau principle. When we reach the 2p orbital, there are
three available orbitals (2px, 2py, and 2pz) for accommodating five more electrons. According to
the Pauli exclusion principle, each electron in these three orbitals must have different spin
quantum numbers.

3. Hund’s rule: Hund’s rule states that when electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy
(degenerate orbitals), they will first fill each orbital with one electron before pairing up.
This rule ensures that electrons are distributed as widely as possible in the available
orbitals, which results in lower energy and greater stability.

For example, let’s consider oxygen (atomic number 8). The first eight electrons will fill up the
1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals according to the Aufbau principle and the Pauli exclusion principle. When
we reach the 2p orbitals, there are three degenerate orbitals (2px, 2py, and 2pz) available for
accommodating six more electrons. According to Hund’s rule, each of these three orbitals will be
singly occupied before any pairing occurs.