Atomic theory- 2

 The present theory of the electronic structure of atoms started with an explanation of the
colored light produced in hot gases and flames. So, we need to describe the nature of
light.
 The chemical properties of the elements are determined by the way the electrons are
arranged.
 The key that has permitted the deduction of the electronic structure of the elements is
atomic spectra.

Light

 Sir Isaac Newton first proposed a corpuscular theory of light which treats light as a
beam of tiny particles called corpuscles.
 At the same time Christian Huygens proposed a wave theory light which treats light
as a type of wave.
 The corpuscular theory was accepted for many years because of the honor of Sir Isaac
Newton.
 After about 200 years Thomas Young was able to show that the correct theory of light
was that of Christian Huygens.
 In his double slit experiment he was able to show that light, like waves, can exhibit
diffraction.
 After that James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light consists of a special type of
waves which can travel through space which he called electromagnetic waves.
 But in the twentieth century based on Planck’s quantum theory Albert Einstein
postulated that light had both wave’s and particle’s properties.
 A wave is characterized by its wavelength and frequency.
 Wavelength: is the distance between any two adjacent points on a wave.
 For a particular wave the inverse of its wavelength is called its wave number.
 Frequency: is the number of cycles that pass a given point in space per second.
 Amplitude: is the height of crest of the wave.
 Amplitude is related to the intensity of wave.
 The two characteristics of a wave are interdependent and are related by the following
mathematical relation
c= λ × v
where , c is speed of the wave∧λ is the wave length∧v(nu , pronounced new)is the frequency
 In a vacuum the speed of the wave equals 300,000 km/ s.
 The speed depends on the medium through which the light passes.
 For calculations in this section, we will assume the light is traveling through vacuum.
 The continuum of radiant energy is called electromagnetic spectrum.
 Visible light occupies a small portion in the electromagnetic spectrum, beyond this
portion of the spectrum, electromagnetic radiations are not visible to the human eye. (The
visible light range for honeybee’s eye is wider than that of human’s)

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Atomic theory- 2

Quantum theory and photons

 A hot solid emits lights of different frequencies at different temperatures.

 from his experiments on glowing solids, Max Planck postulated that a vibrating atom
could have only certain energies E, those allowed by the formula

E=nhv ,n=1,2,3 … ..

 Where h is a constant, called Planck’s constant, n is quantum number, and v is the

frequency of vibration of the atoms.
 The vibrational energies of the atoms are said to be quantized; that is, the possible
energies are limited to certain values.
 Quantaization of energy seems contradicted by everyday experience (The macro world).

Photoelectric effect

 Based on works of Planck, Einstein reasoned that if the quantaized energy lost by a
vibrating atom is emitted as a bit of light, then light consists of quanta (now called
photon) or particles of electromagnetic energy with energy E proportional to the
observed frequency of the light.
E=hv
 This equation displays the wave- particle duality of light.
 The wave- like property of light is also explained by the Compton’s effect.
 Compton’s effect showed that the wave picture of X rays or any electromagnetic waves
cannot explain the observed scattering of these waves with two components, one has the
same wavelength as the original beam; the other has a longer wavelength, when shone on
a given graphite block .
 Using this concept he explained the photoelectric effect.
 Photoelectric effect: is the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal or from
another material when light shines on it.
 A photon can knock out an electron only if it has an energy that equals or exceeds the
binding energy of the electron in the metal.
 The minimum frequency of light needed to knock out an electron from an atom of an
element is a characteristic of that element, and is called threshold frequency.
 Applying the law of conservation of energy we say, if the photon has more than the
threshold value of energy, the excess energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the
emitted electron. Mathematically
E photon =E BE of the electron ∈the metal + EKE of the electron
2
me v e
But, E BE of the electron=h ho∧E KE of the e = ∧E photon=hv
2

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Atomic theory- 2

2
m v
Therefore, hv=h v o + e e
2
 Two lights with the same frequency but different intensity differ in the number of
electron they eject, the more intense is the light the more electrons it will eject.
 Neither the wave nor the particle view alone is a complete description of light.

Bohr’s model

 Now we will see how these different investigations helped in the development of a
theoretical model of the atom.
 Rutherford’s atomic model posed a dilemma.
 According to classical physics a moving charge loses energy by emitting electromagnetic
radiations.
 Rutherford’s model demonstrates the atom in such way that the electrons move around
the nucleus, and if this was true the electron would spiral into the nucleus and as a result
this model would not explain the stability of the atoms.
 This dilemma was solved by Niels Bohr.
 Bohr’s model was not proposed only to solve this dilemma; instead he also tried to
explain the line spectrum of the elements.
 When a light from a hydrogen gas discharge tube is separated into its components by a
prism, it gives a spectrum of lines, each line corresponding to light of a given
wavelength.
 J. J Balmer derived a simple formula for deducing the wavelength of the visible lines
spectrum of hydrogen.
 Bohr proposed his theory to account
1. The stability of the hydrogen atom
2. The line spectrum of atoms
 Bohr postulated the following ideas
i. An electron can have only specific energy values. Bohr borrowed the idea of
quantization from plank, and worked on it accounting electron’s movement and
finally derived a formula for the energy levels of the electron in the hydrogen
atom.
−R
E= 2 H n=1,2,3 … … … .
n

RH is a constant with a value of 2.18 × 10-18 J.

ii. The electron does not radiate energy while orbiting in a given orbit.

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iii. An electron in an atom change energy only by absorbing or emitting a photon

whose energy equals the difference in the energy between the two levels. When
an electron goes from a higher energy level to a lower one it loses energy by
emitting a photon whose energy equals the difference in the energy between the
two energy levels. By using Einstein’s photon concept, Bohr explained the line
spectra of the hydrogen atom.

hv=E f −Ei

By substituting Ef and Ei, calculate the ionization energy of Hydrogen.

 Using his energy formula and this formula he was able to reproduce Balmer’s formula
exactly. This match would suggest that Bohr was on the right track.
 Moreover, he was able to predict all of the lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
including those in the infrared and ultraviolet regions.
 One way of making an electron absorb energy is by colliding two hydrogen atoms, in this
case the kinetic energy of one atom can be gained by the electron of another atom.
 A gas discharge tube contains a large number of ionized and highly excited atoms, and
they give off characteristic colors of light. Neon signs are typical examples.
 These lights are formed because the atoms rid their selves of energy, as they tend to fall
to the lowest energy state possible, by emitting photon.

Limitations of Bohr’s model

 Wavelengths of spectral lines of atoms more complicated than hydrogen could not be
predicted using Bohr’s model simply.
 Bohr’s model also failed to explain further splitting of spectral lines of hydrogen under
influence of magnetic and electric fields.
 The wave- particle duality of particles described by de Broglie faced the Bohr’s model.
 In the macroscopic world people do not perceive this dual nature, because of the
dominance of particle property of particles in the macroscopic level.
 De Broglie, by combining Planck’s and Einstein’s Energy formulae, was able to derive a
formula for wavelength of particles.

h
λ=
mv

 Therefore, electrons, as predicted by this formula, exhibits wave property.

 De Broglie thought that the wave nature of electrons is related to the energy levels.
 This putted the base- stone for the currently accepted Quantum- Mechanical Model of the
atom.

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Atomic theory- 2

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