Classical mechanics:

 Classical mechanics is a physical theory describing the motion of macroscopic objects,

from projectiles to parts of machinery and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft,
planets, stars, and galaxies.

 The earliest formulation of classical mechanics is often referred to as

Newtonian mechanics.
Failure reasons of classical mechanics:

 The wave-like character of particles is ignored

 Inapplicable to atoms, where even the tiniest particles, such as electrons, exhibit .
 At very high speed or in the presence of strong gravitational field classical mechanics is
inadequate.
 Only describe particle nature of light
 It fails to explain certain phenomenon like
1- quantization of energy level
2- photoelectric effect
3-black body radiations
4-fails to explain pattern of spectral line.
Origin of Quantum mechanics:

 Black Body Radiation (1900)

Black Body: Perfect absorber and emitter of electromagnetic radiation.-
Black Body Radiation: Emission of radiation by a black body.
Temperature Dependency:
- The radiation spectrum is determined solely by the temperature of the black body.
2. *Planck's Law:* - Describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a black body.
3. *Quantum Mechanics Significance:* - Black body radiation played a pivotal role in the
development of quantum mechanics.
 Planck's Law- Mathematical expression
for black body radiation spectrum.
- Introduced by Max Planck in 1900.

 B= spectral radiance of a body

 u = frequency
 T = absolute temperaturek_
 KB = Boltzmann constanth
 h= Planck constantc
 c= speed of light in the medium
Photoelectric effect (1905)

 Discovered by Albert Einstein in 1905.- Phenomenon where light falling on a material

ejects electrons from its surface.
Instantaneous Emission:*
- Electrons are emitted instantly when exposed to light.
2. *Threshold Frequency:* -
There's a minimum frequency for photoemission to occur.
Einstein explanation

 Since light is bundled up into photons, Einstein theorized that when a photon falls on the
surface of a metal, the entire photon's energy is transferred to the electron.
 A part of this energy is used to remove the electron from the metal atom's grasp and the
rest is given to the ejected electron as kinetic energy.
 Work Function-
 The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from the material's surface.-
 Differs for different materials
 The photoelectric effect proves that energy is quantized.
 This means that energy arrives in 'lumps' known as quanta. These lumps or packets of
energy are called photons.
 This contradicts the long accepted wave model, where light is considered as an
electromagnetic wave, with energy arriving continuously.
Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom(1913)

Background:

 Niels Bohr introduced the atomic Hydrogen model in 1913.

 He described it as a positively charged nucleus, comprised of protons and neutrons,
surrounded by a negatively charged electron cloud. In the model, electrons orbit the
nucleus in atomic shells.
Postulates of Bohr’s model

1. *Electron Orbits:*
Electrons move in fixed orbits around the nucleus without emitting radiation.
2. *Quantization of Angular Momentum:* The angular momentum of an electron in an
orbit is quantized and is given by an integer multiple of Planck's constant divided by 2π
.3. Energy Levels: Electrons can only occupy certain orbits corresponding to specific energy
levels. An electron can absorb or emit energy only when transitioning between these levels
4. *Radiation Absorption and Emission:* An electron absorbs or emits energy in discrete
quanta (quanta of light) when it jumps between different energy levels.
hf=En-Ep
.5. *Stationary States:*
Electrons in allowed orbits do not emit radiation and are in "stationary states." The emission
or absorption of radiation occurs only during transitions between these states.
6. *Stability of Orbits:* According to classical electromagnetism, an accelerated electron
should emit radiation. Bohr's model addressed this by restricting electrons to specific
quantized orbits, preventing continuous radiation.
Angular momentum:

Formula;

l=nh/2π

l= angular momentumn
n= principal quantum number
h= Planck's constant
π= pi
Limitations of Bohr’s Model

 The Bohr model of the atom was a significant step forward in our understanding of the
atom. However, it has several limitations:
1.Failed to explain the spectral lines of larger atoms:* The Bohr model was only able to
accurately predict the spectral lines of hydrogen and other light elements. It failed to
explain the more complex spectra of larger atoms, which have more electrons and more
complicated energy levels.
2.Violated the Heisenberg uncertainty principle:* The Bohr model assumes that electrons
have a definite position and a definite momentum, which violates the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. This principle states that it is impossible to know both the position
and momentum of a particle with perfect accuracy.
3. Could not explain the Zeeman effect:* The Zeeman effect is the splitting of spectral lines
in a magnetic field. The Bohr model could not explain this effect, which is due to the
interaction between the magnetic field and the electrons' magnetic moments.

4. Could not explain the Stark effect:* The Stark effect is the splitting of spectral lines in
an electric field. The Bohr model could not explain this effect, which is due to the
interaction between the electric field and the electrons' electric charges.
5. Could not explain the photoelectric effect:* The photoelectric effect is the emission of
electrons from a material when it is exposed to light. The Bohr model could not explain
this effect, which is due to the absorption of light quanta by electrons.
 Despite its limitations, the Bohr model was a valuable step forward in our understanding
of the atom. It helped to lay the foundation for the development of quantum mechanics,
which is the modern theory of the atom.
Sommerfeld Modal :

 Arnold Sommerfeld, a Germon physicist, proposed modifications to Bohr’s model in

1915-1916 to adress these shortcommings.
 These modifications are known as,Sommerfeld model or Bohr-Sommerfeld
theory,extended the Bohr model by introducing elliptical orbits and relativistic effects.
Key points of Sommerfeld model:

1. Elliptical Orbits: The Bohr model restricted electrons to circular orbits. Sommerfeld
proposed that electrons could also occupy elliptical orbits, allowing for a more nuanced
description of electron behavior. This modification helped explain the fine structure of
spectral lines, which are closely spaced lines that arise from transitions between sublevels
within the same energy level.
2. Relativistic Effects: Sommerfeld incorporated special relativity into the Bohr model,
accounting for the relativistic increase in mass of electrons as they approach the speed of
light. This modification was particularly important for describing the behavior of
electrons in inner orbits, where velocities are higher.
3. Quantum Numbers: Sommerfeld introduced additional quantum numbers to describe the electron's
motion more precisely. The Bohr model used only the principal quantum number (n), which
determined the energy level. Sommerfeld introduced the azimuthal quantum number (l), which
determines the shape of the orbit (s, p, d, f orbitals), and the magnetic quantum number (m_l), which
defines the orientation of the orbit in space.

 The Sommerfeld model provided a more refined picture of atomic structure compared to the original
Bohr model. It successfully explained the fine structure of spectral lines and improved the accuracy
of calculations for larger atoms. However, the Sommerfeld model was still a classical model and
failed to account for wave-particle duality and other quantum phenomena. The advent of quantum
mechanics in the 1920s superseded the classical models of the atom, providing a more
comprehensive and accurate description of atomic structure and behavior.
De-Broglie’s concept:

 The de Broglie equation, formulated by Louis de Broglie in 1924, is a fundamental principle

of quantum mechanics that establishes a relationship between the wavelength (λ) of a
particle and its momentum (p). It posits that all matter possesses wave-particle duality,
meaning that particles can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties.
 The de Broglie equation is expressed as:
λ = h/p
where:
λ = de Broglie wavelength in meters (m)
h = Planck's constant, approximately 6.63 × 10^-34(J·s)
p = particle's momentum in (kg·m/s)
 Derivation of momentum:

 De Broglie suggested that momentum of a material particle of mass m and velocity v should be given by same expression.
Thus,

p=h/ λ = mv
λ = h/p
λ = h/mv
 This equation implies that particles with higher momentum have shorter wavelengths, while particles with lower
momentum have longer wavelengths.
Implications of De Broglie equation:

1. *Wave-Particle Duality:* It reinforces the concept of wave-particle duality,

demonstrating that particles, despite their discrete nature, can also exhibit wave-like
characteristics.
2. *Quantization of Electron Orbits:* It explains why electrons in atoms can only exist in
certain energy levels, corresponding to specific de Broglie wavelengths.
3. *Electron Diffraction:* It provides a theoretical basis for electron diffraction, a
phenomenon where electrons exhibit wave-like behavior when interacting with crystals or
other obstacles.
4. *Photoelectric Effect:* It helps explain the photoelectric effect, where light, considered a
wave, can eject electrons from a material, demonstrating its particle-like nature.
Davission-Germer experiment:

 The Davisson-Germer experiment was a landmark experiment in the field of physics that
provided experimental evidence for the wave-particle duality of electrons, a fundamental
concept in quantum mechanics. The experiment was conducted by Clinton Davisson and
Lester Germer at Bell Labs in the 1920s.
 Davisson and Germer sought to experimentally verify de Broglie's hypothesis. They set
up an experiment in which they directed a beam of electrons at a nickel crystal. They
expected the electrons to scatter off the crystal in a random pattern, similar to how billiard
balls scatter off a pool table
 However, instead of a random pattern, they observed a diffraction pattern, a pattern of
bright and dark bands that is characteristic of waves. This unexpected result provided
strong evidence for de Broglie's hypothesis: electrons exhibit wave-like properties.
Mathematical expression:
(k.E of electrons)

K.E = Ve
1/2 mv²=Ve
mv=√2mVe
 From de brogli's equation,
λ = h/p
λ = h/mv
λ = h/√2mVe
Significance of experiment:

 The Davisson-Germer experiment was a major breakthrough in physics. It provided

experimental confirmation of de Broglie's hypothesis and helped establish wave-particle
duality as a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics.
 The experiment also had a profound impact on our understanding of the nature of matter
and paved the way for the development of new technologies, such as electron microscopy.
 The experiment's significance lies in its groundbreaking nature, challenging the
prevailing classical view of matter and providing experimental evidence for a new and
counterintuitive concept.
 It was a pivotal moment in the development of quantum mechanics and continues to be a
cornerstone of our understanding of the physical world.
 Wave particle duality:

 Wave-particle duality is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that states that all particles,
including electrons, photons, and even larger entities like atoms and molecules, exhibit both wave-like and
particle-like properties. This means that particles can behave like waves, exhibiting phenomena such as
interference and diffraction, while also retaining their particle-like nature, such as having a specific
location and momentum.
Wave-like properties of particles:

1. *Interference:* When two waves encounter each other, they can interact and produce a
pattern of constructive and destructive interference. This phenomenon has been observed
with electrons, demonstrating their wave-like nature.
2. *Diffraction:* When a wave encounters an obstacle or passes through a slit, it can bend
and spread out, creating a diffraction pattern. This phenomenon has also been observed
with electrons, providing further evidence for their wave-like behavior.
Particles-like properties of particles:

1. *Localization:* Particles have a definite location and can be detected at specific points in
space. This property is inconsistent with the spread-out nature of waves

2. *Momentum:* Particles have a measurable momentum, which is a measure of their linear

motion. This property is not directly associated with waves, which are characterized by
their frequency and wavelength.
Examples of wave particles duality:

1. *Electrons in atoms:* Electrons in atoms can only exist in certain energy levels,
corresponding to specific de Broglie wavelengths. This quantization of energy levels is
explained by the wave-like nature of electrons

.2. *Photoelectric effect:* When light shines on a metal surface, it can eject electrons, a
phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. This effect is explained by the particle-
like nature of light, as it acts like a stream of photons that can knock electrons out of the
metal.
De-Broglie’s interpretation of Bohr’s orbits:

 At the time of formulation of Bohr’s theory,there was no justification of the first two
postulates.while postulate 3 had some roots in plank’s thesis. Later on with the
development of De Broglie’s hypothesis,some justification could be seen in postulate 2.
 Louis de Broglie's interpretation of the Bohr model extended Bohr's ideas by
incorporating the concept of wave-particle duality. In de Broglie's view, electrons in an
atom behave as both particles and waves, with their wave-like properties playing a crucial
role in determining their energy levels and orbits.
 Key aspects of De-broglie’s interpretation:

1. *Wave-like Orbits:* de Broglie proposed that electrons in an atom occupy stationary orbits, but
these orbits are not simply circular paths like Bohr's model suggested. Instead, they are wave-like
patterns that extend around the nucleus.
2. *Quantization of Energy:* The quantization of electron energy levels in an atom is explained by
the condition that the circumference of the electron's orbit must be an integral multiple of its de
Broglie wavelength. This restriction allows only certain energy levels to exist, corresponding to
specific wave patterns.
3. *Orbital Stability:* The wave-like nature of electron orbits provides stability to the atom. Unlike
classical particles that would spiral into the nucleus if their energy decreased, wave-like electrons
can maintain their orbits without radiating energy.
Mathematical prove:

 Consider a string of length l. If this is put into stationary vibrations, we must have l=nλ
where n is integer. Suppose that string is bent into radius r,as demonstrated in the figure,
 So that,
l=2πr= nλ
λ = 2πr/n
 From de broglie’s expression,
λ = h/p
λ =h/mv

 Thus,
h/mv=2πr/n

 Or
mvr = nh/2π
This is 2nd postulate of Bohr’s model