ASSIGNMENT ON

Inorganic Pharmacy-I

Course Title: Inorganic Pharmacy-I

Course Code: PHA-104

SUBMITTED TO:
NAME: Dr. ABM Mahfuz ul Alam
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY
INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY, BANGLADESH.

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME: Nawfal Hasan Siam

ID: 1910100

SEC: 02
DEPERTMENT OF PHARMACY

DATE OF SUBMITTED: 1-04-2020

 Bohr Atomic Model
A Danish physicist named Neil Bohr in 1913 proposed the Bohr atomic model. He modified
the problems and limitations associated with Rutherford’s model of an atom.  Earlier in
Rutherford Model, Rutherford explained in an atom a nucleus is positively charged and is
surrounded by electrons (negatively charged particles).According to Bohr Atomic model, a
small positively charged nucleus is surrounded by revolving negatively charged electrons in
fixed orbits. He concluded that electron will have more energy if it is located away from the
nucleus whereas the electrons will have less energy if it located near the nucleus.

Bohr’s Model of an Atom (Source Credit: Britannica)

Postulates of  the Bohr Atomic Model

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular path termed “orbits” or “shells” or
“energy level.”
 The orbits are termed as “stationary orbit.”
 Every circular orbit will have a certain amount of fixed energy and these circular orbits
were termed orbital shells. The electrons will not radiate energy as long as they continue
to revolve around the nucleus in the fixed orbital shells.
 The different energy levels are denoted by integers such as n=1 or n=2 or n=3 and so on.
These are called as quantum numbers. The range of quantum number may vary and begin
from the lowest energy level (nucleus side n=1) to highest energy level. Learn the concept
of an Atomic number here.
 The different energy levels or orbits are represented in two ways such as 1, 2, 3, 4…  or K,
L, M, N….. shells.  The lowest energy level of the electron is called the ground state.
Learn the concept of Valency here in detail here.
 The change in energy occurs when the electrons jump from one energy level to other. In
an atom, the electrons move from lower to higher energy level by acquiring the required
energy. However, when an electron loses energy it moves from higher to lower energy
level.
Therefore,
 1st orbit (energy level) is represented as K shell and it can hold up to 2 electrons.
 2nd orbit (energy level) is represented as L shell and it can hold up to 8 electrons.
 3rd orbit (energy level) is represented as M shell and it can contain up to 18 electrons.
 4th orbit (energy level) is represented as N Shell and it can contain maximum 32 electrons.
The orbits continue to increase in a similar manner.

Distribution of Electrons in Orbits or Shells:

Electronic distribution of various orbits or energy levels can be calculated by the

formula 2n2. Here, ‘n’ denotes the number of orbits.

 The number of electrons in K shell (1st orbit) can be calculated by 2n2= 2 x 12 = 2. Thus,
maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit = 2
 Similarly, The number of electrons in L shell (2nd orbit)= 2 x 22 = 8. Thus, maximum
number of electrons in 2nd orbit = 8
We can determine the maximum number of electrons in a similar way.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom:

Bohr atomic model had few limitations. They are:

 Failure to explain Zeeman Effect (how atomic spectra are affected by magnetic fields).
 It contradicts Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
 Unable to explain how to determine the spectra of larger atoms.

Bohr Radius
n atomic, physics, Bohr Radius is a physical constant, expressing the most probable
distance between the electron and the nucleus in a Hydrogen atom in the ground
state. Denoted by ao or rBohr. Due to his prime role in building the Bohr model, This
physical constant is named after him.

Bohr Radius In Different Units

Refer the table given below for the value of Bohr Radius in various units
ao in Bohr radius
SI units 5.29×10−11 m
Imperial or US units 2.08×10−9 in
Natural units 2.68×10−4 /eV
3.27×1024 ℓP
Bohr Radius Formula
The Bohr radius in SI unit is given by-

a0=4πε0(h2π)2mee2=(h2π)mecα

Where,

 ao is the Bohr radius.

 me is the rest mass of electron.
 εo is the permittivity of the free space
 (h2π) = ħ is the reduced Planck constant.
 c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
 α is the fine structure constant.
 e is the elementary charge.

Energy

The motion of the electrons in the Rutherford model was unstable because, according to
classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory, any charged particle moving on a curved
path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons would lose energy and spiral into
the nucleus. To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the Rutherford model by
requiring that the electrons move in orbits of fixed size and energy. The energy of an
electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits. Radiation can occur
only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another. The atom will be completely
stable in the state with the smallest orbit, since there is no orbit of lower energy into which
the electron can jump.

Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds are chemical bonds in which 2 atoms share electrons with each
other. For example, in the hydrogen molecule (H2) you have a simple covalent
bond. The hydrogen atoms share their electrons so that they can be stable (filling
the first orbital, 1s).
Covalent Bond formed
A covalent compound is made when two or more nonmetal atoms bond by
sharing valence electrons. The shared valence electrons between two nonmetal
atoms is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonds are formed when two atoms begin
sharing electrons. The electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei of
the atoms.

Different Types Of Covalent Bond

The three types as mentioned in the other answers are polar covalent, non-polar
covalent, and coordinate covalent.

The first, polar covalent, is formed between two nonmetals that have a difference
in electronegativity. They share their electron density unevenly. Most of the electron
density will be spread towards the electronegative element, and provide a charge
separation in the atom.

The nonpolar covalent bond is formed between atoms with very similar

electronegativities so density is shared throughout.

Coordinate covalent bonds are mainly formed between transition metals and what
are called "ligands"... compounds or atoms that share their nonbonding electron
pairs with the empty D orbitals of a transition metal.

Periodic trends
The periodic trends are based on the Periodic Law, which states that if the chemical
elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, many of their properties go
through cyclical changes, with elements of similar properties recurring at intervals.
[1]
 For example, after arranging elements in their increasing atomic numbers, many
of the physical and chemical properties of Lithium, such as its vigorous reactivity
with water, recur in sodium, potassium and caesium.
Discovery of Periodic Law constitutes one of the most important events in the history
of chemical science. Almost every chemist makes extensive and continued use of
Periodic Law. Periodic Law also led to the development of the periodic table, which
is widely used nowadays.

Atomic radius
The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost
stable electron orbital in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to
decrease across a period from left to right due to the shrinking of the atom because
of increasing effective nuclear force on the electrons. The atomic radius usually
increases while going down a group due to the addition of a new energy level (shell
which causes shrinkage in the size of the atoms across the period). However,
atomic radii tend to increase diagonally, since the number of electrons has a larger
effect than the sizeable nucleus. For example, lithium (145 picometer) has a smaller
atomic radius than magnesium (150 picometer).
The atomic radius can be further specified into 4 types as:

 Covalent radius: half the distance between two atoms of a diatomic compound,

singly bonded.
 Van der Waals radius: half the distance between the nuclei of atoms of different
molecules in a lattice of covalent molecules.
 Metallic radius: half the distance between two adjacent nuclei of atoms in a
metallic lattice.
 Ionic radius: half the distance between two nuclei of elements of an ionic
compound.

Ionization energy
The ionization potential is the minimum amount of energy required to remove
one electron from each atom in a mole of isolated, neutral and gaseous atom.
The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove the first electron, and
generally the nth ionization energy is the energy required to remove the atom's nth
electron, after the (n−1) electrons before it has been removed. The potential is an
intensive property and it is measured by "volt"; whereas the energy is an extensive
property expressed by "eV" or "kJ/mole".
As a result, the ionization energies for a given element will increase steadily within
a given shell, and when starting on the next shell down will show a drastic jump in
ionization energy. Simply put, the lower the principal quantum number, the higher
the ionization energy for the electrons within that shell. The exceptions are the
elements in the boron and oxygen family, which require slightly less energy than the
general trend.
Although it may seem that fluorine should have the greatest electron affinity, the
small size of fluorine generates enough repulsion that chlorine has the greatest
electron affinity.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of
electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely
determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved, using
the Pauling scale. Trend-wise, as one moves from left to right across a period in the
periodic table, the electronegativity increases due to the stronger attraction that the
atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases. Moving down in a group, the
electronegativity decreases due to an increase in the distance between the nucleus
and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom
have less of an attraction for electrons or protons.
However, in the group 13 elements electronegativity increases
from aluminium to thallium, and in group 14 electronegativity of lead is lower than
that of tin.

Metallic and non-metallic properties

Metallic properties increase down groups as decreasing attraction between the
nuclei and the outermost electrons causes the outermost electrons to be loosely
bound and thus able to conduct heat and electricity. Across the period, from left to
right, increasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes
the metallic character to decrease.
Non-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due
to the same reason due to an increase in nuclear attractive force. Metals are ductile
while nonmetals are not.

Properties of Alkali and Alkaline Metals

The Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are chemical elements from the s-block of the periodic table. They
have homologous physical and chemical properties.

Physical Properties

1. Alkali metals, therefore, have low ionization energies. Due to distance of ns1
electron from nucleus the ionization energies of alkali metals go on decreasing from
Li to Cs.

2. Heat of atomization: Alkali metals have low heats of atomization which are
indicative of he fact that there are weak interatomic bonds in alkali metals.

3. The elements which have a strong tendency to lose their outermost electrons to
form the cations are said to be electropositive or metallic elements. Electropositive
character of alkali metals go on increasing from Li to Cs.

4. The ns1 electron in the atoms of alkali metals is so loosely held with the nucleus
that even the low energy photons (i.e. light) can eject this ns 1 electron from the
surface of these metals.

5. Density: The densities of alkali metals are quite low due to the large atomic
volumes. Li, Na and K are lighter than water. The densities increase with the
increase in atomic number from Li to Cs. K is, however, lighter than Na which is due
to an unusual increase in atomic size of K.

Chemical Properties

1. Formation of Amalgams: Action of mercury: Alkali metals dissolved readily in

mercury and forms the amalgams. This process is very exothermic.

2. Formation of Halides: Action of Halogens: When the alkali metals react with the
different halogens (Group 7 of the periodic table), the group of compounds formed
are known as the alkali metals halides.

2Li(s) + X2(g) → 2LiX(s)

Where X is Cl or Br or I

3. Action of liquid ammonia: All dissolve in ammonia to give solutions which are a
beautiful royal blue when relatively dilute and take on a metallic bronze appearance
when concentrated. The most important equilibria in the more dilute solutions are:

Na(s) Na(NH3) Na+(NH3) + e-)NH3)

 2e-(NH3) e2-(NH3)

4. Formation of hyroxides: In water, the metals react vigorously to form strongly

alkaline hydroxides, liberating hydrogen. The hydroxides of alkali metals are white,
deliquescent, crystalline solids. They are readily soluble in water (except for lithium
hydroxide which is only slightly soluble) to yield strong bases known as alkali.

2M(s) + 2H2O -à MOH(aq) + H2(g)

5. Electronegativity and first ionization energy of all alkali metals are lowest of all
elements and heat of atomization is also low. These properties make alkali metals
highly reactive especially with most electronegative elements like Cl 2 and O2 as ionic
compound. This reactivity increases with increase of atomic number. Thus Li reacts
strongly, Na vigorously and K, Rb and Cs with increasing violence.

The Alkaline Earth Metals

The alkaline earth metals are chemical elements in the s-block of the periodic table
with very similar physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties

The alkaline earth metals (beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium
(Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra)) are a group of chemical elements in the s-block
of the periodic table with very similar properties:

 shiny
 silvery-white
 somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure
 readily lose their two outermost electrons to form cations with a 2+ charge
 low densities
 low melting points
 low boiling points

Chemical properties

1.Beryllium is an exception. It does not react with water or steam, and its halides are
covalent. All compounds that include beryllium have a covalent bond.
2.Alkylmagnesium halides (RMgX where R = hydrocarbon group and X = halogen)
are used to synthetise organic compounds. Here’s an
example: 3RMgCl+SnCl4→3MgCl2+R3SnCl3RMgCl+SnCl4→3MgCl2+R3SnCl
3.Magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as a material to refract furnace brick and wire
insulation (melting point of 2852°C).
4.Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is mainly used in the construction industry and for
making limestone, marble, chalk, and coral.

5.In chemical terms, all of the alkaline metals react with the halogens to form ionic
alkaline earth metal halides. All the alkaline earth metals except beryllium also react
with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides which should be handled with great
care..

Difference Between Alkali and Alkaline

Alkali Alkaline

Definition The term Alkali is used to The term Alkaline earth

name the group 1 metal is used to name
elements of the periodic group 2 elements of the
table. periodic table.

Cations Alkali metals form Alkaline earth metals form

+1cations. +2 cations.
Ionization Energy Alkali metals have lower Alkaline earth metals have
ionizing energy. higher ionizing energy.

Valence Electron Alkali elements have one Alkaline earth metals have
valence electron. two valence electrons.

Physical Properties Alkali metals are softer. Alkaline earth metals are

The End