Topic 1.

Atomic Model
Rutherford Atomic Model
Rutherford aimed radioactively produced streams of α-particles toward a thin gold sheet to see
what would happen. He covered the thin gold foil with a fluorescent zinc sulfide screen and
observed the following behaviors of the α-particles.

• Most of the α -particles went straight through the gold foil without being deflected,
demonstrating that most of the volume inside an atom is unoccupied.
• The positive charge in an atom is not equally distributed because some of the -particles
were deflected by the gold sheet at extremely tiny angles. The atom's positive charge is
packed into a tiny space.
• Only a small fraction of the α-particles (One in a million) was deflected by an angle of
approximately 180 degrees. Hence, positively charged particles in an atom occupy a
relatively tiny fraction of the atom's entire volume.

Rutherford Atomic Model

According to Rutherford's hypothesis, an atom's positive charge and the vast majority of its mass
are packed into a very tiny space. Rutherford named the core the nucleus, Again, the atom's
negatively charged electrons, which round the nucleus and Rutherford stated this path as orbit.
Electrons are kept in place by the strong electrostatic force of attraction between them and the
positively charged particles that make up the nucleus.

Limitations of the Rutherford Atomic Model

When a particle traveling in a circle would accelerate and release energy as it goes. This would
result in the spinning electron losing enough energy to fall into the nucleus. This
phenomenon could not be explained by Rutherford's atomic model. Also, the model did not specify
how electrons would be arranged along a circular pathway.
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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
Bohr Atomic Model

In 1913, Danish scientist Niels Bohr created the Bohr Atomic model, which describes the structure
of atoms and molecules, most notably hydrogen. The Bohr atomic model of the atom was the
predecessor of modern quantum mechanical models since it was the first to include quantum
theory.

Bohr's atomic model is based on the following postulates:

• The specified orbits, shells, and energy levels that electrons follow as they orbit the
nucleus. The orbits are described as stationary orbits.
• Orbital shells are spheres that circle the planets and carry a certain amount of energy.
Energy won't be given off by the nucleus so long as the electrons in the fixed orbital shells
keep spinning around it.
• The different energy states are represented by integers like n=1, n=2, n=3, and so on. These
are referred to as quantum numbers. From the ground state (nucleus side n=1) to the highest
energy level, quantum numbers may take on a broad variety of values.
• Electrons alter their energy as they transition between levels. The electrons in an atom are
supplied with the energy they need to jump between energy levels. Yet, as an electron loses
energy, it drops from a higher energy level to a lower one.
• There are two methods to display the different orbits or energy levels: the 1, 2, 3, 4... and
the K, L, M, and N shells. The lowest energy level of an electron is called its ground state.

Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model

The spectrum predictions made by the Bohr atomic model theory are true for smaller atoms like
hydrogen, but it ultimately fails for heavier atoms. Bohr's atomic model can't account for the Stark
effect when the spectral line is split into fine lines by an electric field. Again, Bohr's atomic model
also can't account for the Zeeman effect, which occurs when the spectral line is split up into many
parts by an applied magnetic field. Although Heisenberg argues that electrons can't have a known
radius and orbit at the same time, this is what the Bohr atomic model theory proposes. Hence,
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Bohr's atomic model contradicts the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
Vector Atomic Model

The vector atomic model is an extension of the Bohr-Sommerfeld model which explains the
angular momentum of an atom of a many-electron system. This model provides a handy way to
visualize the angular momenta of electrons in atoms.

Total angular momentum, denoted by J = L + S, is the sum of orbital angular momentum L and
spin angular momentum S. The orbital angular momenta of the individual electrons in a multi-
electron atom with weak spin-orbit coupling are assumed to add up to a total orbital angular
momentum L. Similarly, it is assumed that the various spin angular momenta will couple to provide
a total spin angular momentum S. The total angular momentum is thus the product of L and S.

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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
Topic 2.

Conductor and Semiconductor

A certain amount of energy is associated with each orbit, and it is required of each electron that
resides there. The greater the orbital radius, the higher the orbital energy. More energies and higher
energy levels correspond to bigger orbit diameters.

Energy Band

Electrons in each given orbit of a single atom have a fixed amount of energy. Yet, in a solid, an
atom's behavior is strongly affected by its densely packed neighbors. The electron in every given
orbit of such an atom, then, may occupy a variety of energy levels or as a band rather than being
limited to just one. So, the term energy band is used to describe the range of energies that an
electron in a material may have.

Valence Band

The energy ranges possessed by valence electrons are known as the valance band. The valence
band of any material corresponds to the outermost electron orbital occupied by electrons. The
electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. For any atom, the
valence band has the electrons of the highest energy. When an electron is energized, it might leave
its orbital in the valence band and go into the conduction band.

Conduction Band

The valence electrons have a fragile influence on the nucleus in which they are located. Even at
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temperatures that are normal, there is still a possibility that some of the valence electrons may
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break away and become free electrons. These free electrons in a conductor are the responsible ones

Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
for the flow of current through the conductor. Because of this property, these electrons as
conduction electrons. Conduction band refers to the continuum of energies, or the band, that the
conduction electrons can occupy.

Energy Gap

The forbidden energy gap/ energy gap refers to the potential energy difference between the
conduction band and the valence band. No electron in a solid can exist in a forbidden energy gap/
energy gap since there is no permitted energy state there. As the valence electrons' energy gap
increases, their ties to the nucleus become stronger. External energy equivalent to the forbidden
energy gap is required to force an electron from the valence band into the conduction band.

Insulators

Insulators are materials that prevent the conduction of electricity. Example: wood, glass, etc. The
valence band is complete whereas the conduction band is vacant in terms of energy. Moreover, the
valence band to conduction band energy gap is significant (6 eV to 15 eV). As a result, the valence
electrons must be dragged by an extremely strong electric field into the conduction band.

When any insulator material is at ambient temperature, its valence electrons do not have enough
energy to jump to the conduction band. If the temperature is increased, however, the valence
electrons may gain enough kinetic energy to transition into the conduction band. An insulator has
a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance because its resistance drops as its temperature
rises.
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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
Conductors

Conductors are materials that conduct electricity and have a molecular structure that allows
electrons to move freely inside them. This is because a conductor has an abundance of unpaired
electrons. The valence band and the conduction band are adjacent in the energy region. When the
free electrons in a conductor overlap with each other, an electric current may be generated by
applying a small potential difference across the conductor.

Semiconductors

Materials with electrical conductivity somewhere between that of conductors and insulators are
known as semiconductors. In semiconducting materials, the valence band energy is very close to
full, whereas the conduction band energy is quite close to being empty. Moreover, the separation
of the valence and conduction bands in terms of energy is quite narrow (around 1 eV). In short,
semiconductors have a nearly full valence band, a nearly empty conduction band, as well as a very
tiny energy gap (about 1 eV).

In semiconductors, the valence band is full while the conduction band is empty at low
temperatures. As a result, semiconductors act like an insulator at room temperature. At ambient
temperature, however, a small number of electrons (about one electron for every 1010 atoms)
transfer to the conduction band, giving the semiconductor a negligible amount of conductivity.
When energy is provided, more valence electrons transition into the conduction band, resulting in
greater conductivity. A negative temperature coefficient of resistance indicates that a
semiconductor's electrical conductivity rises with increasing temperature.
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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
Temperature Dependency of Semiconductor

The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials varies noticeably with temperature. All
the semiconductor atoms' electrons are securely bound at the absolute zero temperature. The
valence electrons are involved in covalent bonding, whereas the inner orbit electrons are bound.
Covalent bonds are very stable and free electrons are nonexistent at room temperature. That is why
the semiconductor crystal acts as a perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. Also, at this
temperature, the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands is quite big, and the valence
band is completely filled. Thus, no valence electron can escape into the conduction band and the
lack of free electrons causes semiconductors to act like insulators.

Again, above the absolute zero temperature, some of the covalent bonds in the semiconductor are
broken as the temperature increases. When bonds are broken, the electrons involved in making
those bonds go free. As a consequence, the semiconductor contains a small number of free
electrons. If the potential is supplied across the semiconductor crystal, these liberated electrons
may form a modest electric current. So, semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient
of resistance since their resistance greatly changes as their temperature rises.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor is one that is exceptionally pure. At room temperature, hole-electron

pairs may be created in an intrinsic semiconductor. Current conduction occurs through free
electrons and holes when an electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor. Free
electrons are released when covalent connections are shattered by heat. Meanwhile, the covalent
bonds acquire gaps. Both free electrons and holes conduct electricity through the semiconductor
when it is subjected to an electric field. Thus, the sum of the currents caused by free- electrons and
holes equals the total current within the semiconductor.
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Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
At normal temperatures, the intrinsic semiconductor can only conduct a very small amount of
current. The pure semiconductor must be modified to greatly improve its conducting qualities
before it can be used in electrical devices. To do this, the intrinsic semiconductors are treated, or
doped, with a little quantity of a suitable impurity, creating this type of impure or doped
semiconductor known as an extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors are classified
into two sections: p-type semiconductors and n-type semiconductors.

When trivalent materials are used in the intrinsic semiconductor, then it is called a p-type (positive
type) semiconductor. And when pentavalent materials are used in the intrinsic semiconductor, then
it is called an n-type (negative type) semiconductor.

P-N Junction

p-n junctions are interfaces between p-type and n-type semiconductors inside a single crystal of
semiconductor material. A depletion area separates the p-region and the n-region at the p-n
junction where the energy is stored. Since the p-n junction is in equilibrium, the effect described
in the prior lesson may be produced without applying any external voltage to it.

Formation of p-n Junction

Free electrons in the n region close to the junction diffuse across the junction and unite with the
holes in the p region at the moment the junction is formed. Therefore, free electrons leave the n
area and spread across the junction. A layer of positively charged atoms (pentavalent ions) forms
in the area around the junction as a result. As electrons cross the junction and unite with holes so
holes of the p region are lost. Consequently, trivalent ions, which are negatively charged, form a
layer close to the junction. A depletion area is formed due to the two layers of positive and negative
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charges (or depletion layer) which future prohibits electron-hole combination. As compared to the
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n area and the p region, the depletion layer is very thin and forms very rapidly.

Aoly Ur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology