Unit 4

Semiconductor Physics
 Introduction
1) Free electron theory
2) Energy states of an isolated atom
3) Band theory of solid
4) Valence Band , conduction band & forbidden band
5) Classification of solids on the basis of band theory
6) Effective mass of an electron
7) Density of states for free electrons in metals
8) Fermi-Dirac probability distribution function & fermi
level (only formula)
9) Conductivity of conductors
10) Conductivity of semiconductors
11) Free electrons & holes concentration in semiconductors
12) Carrier concentration & Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
13) Carrier concentration & Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
14) p-n junction diode
15) Energy band structure of p-n junction diode
16) Barrier potential in diode
17) Ideal diode equation
18) Solar cell
19) Hall effect
20) Formulae & Numerical based on it.
 Introduction

• Semiconductors are materials whose electronic

properties are intermediate between those of
Metals and Insulators.

• T hey have conductivities in the range of 10 -4to

10 +4S/m.

• The interesting feature about semiconductors is

that they are bipolar and current is transported by
two charge carriers of opposite sign.

• These intermediate properties are determined

by
1. Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
• Silicon and Germanium are elemental
semiconductors and they have four valence electrons
which are distributed among the outermost S and p
orbital's.

• These outer most S and p orbital's of Semiconductors

involve in Sp3 hybridanisation .

• These Sp3 orbital's form four covalent bonds of

equal angular separation leading to a tetrahedral
arrangement of atoms in space results tetrahedron
shape, resulting crystal structure is known as Diamond
cubic crystal structure
Semiconductors are mainly two
types

1.Intrinsic (Pure)
Semiconductors
2.Extrinsic (Impure)
Semiconductors
Semiconductor Physics

Ge Ge Ge

Ge P Ge

Free
electron
Ge Ge Ge
Free electron theory

Classical Free electron theory (Lorentz-Drude Model):

The free electron model was proposed by Lorentz and Paul Drude in 1900, which is
known as classical free electron theory.
According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons which are free to move in the
crystal like molecules of a gas in a container and obey the laws of classical mechanics.

Advantages:
1. It verifies ohm’s law
2. It explains electrical conductivity of metals.
3. It explains thermal conductivity of metals.
4. It derives Widemann – Franz law. (I.e. the
relation between electrical and thermal
conductivity.
Disadvantages:
1. It could not explain the photoelectric effect, Compton
Effect and black body radiation.
2. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators
could not be explained.
𝐾
3. Widemann – Franz law ( 𝜌𝑇= constant) is not applicable at
lower temperatures.
4. Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.
The theoretical value of paramagnetic susceptibility is
greater than the experimental value.
Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties

In 1928, Sommerfeld developed a new theory applying quantum mechanical concepts

and Fermi–Dirac statistics to the free electron in the metal. This theory is called quantum
free electron theory.

Quantum Free electron theory (Sommerfeld Model):

Advantages:
1. It successfully explains the electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
2. We can explain the Thermionic phenomenon.
3. Temperature dependence of conductivity of metals can be explained by this theory.
4. It can explain the specific heat of metals.
5. It explains magnetic susceptibility of metals.

Disadvantages:
1. It is unable to explain the metallic properties of exhibited by only certain crystals.
2. It is unable to explain why the atomic arrays in metallic crystals should prefer
certain structures only
Effective mass of an electron

We generally assume that,

Mass of electron in solids = mass of a free electron.

However, in some solids, experimentally measured values of,

Mass of electron is slightly > mass of a free electron.
OR
Mass of electron is slightly < mass of a free electron.

The experimentally determined electron mass is called as ‘effective mass m*’,

This deviation of mass is due to the interaction between drifting electrons and the
atoms in the solids.
The effective mass depends on the location of an electron in the allowed energy band.
Density of States

In solid state physics, the density of states (DOS) of a system describes the number of
states that are available to be occupied by the system at each level of energy.

It is mathematically represented as a distribution by a probability density function, and

it is generally an average over the space and time domains of the various states
occupied by the system.

High DOS at a specific energy level means that many states are available for
occupation.

Generally, the density of states of matter is continuous.

In isolated systems however, such as atoms or molecules in the gas phase, the density
distribution is discrete.
Opening of band gap due to internal electron diffraction

When an electron moves through a lattice of positive ions, it experiences varying potentials. The
potential of an electron at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum in between two ions.
ions
Distance through ions
e-

V(x)
Potential

The potential experienced by an electron, when

it passes along a line through the positive ions .

Kronig and Penney approximated these potentials inside the crystal to the shape of rectangular steps

V(x)
The energies of electrons can be known
by solving Schrödinger’s wave equation
in such a lattice.
V=0
𝑎
By solving the Schrödinger’s wave equation using Bloch theorem, we get Energy vs
K (momentum) diagram, as shown in figure.

The dotted line is representing the

motion for a free electron. As
electron is moving in a periodic
potential, it appears that there are
gaps which open in energy spectrum
𝑘𝑎
at an integer of 𝜋

These gaps correspond to energy bands inside the solids. Thus, the energy level of
electron in the crystal lattice is discrete.
Band Theory of Solids
Consider Sodium having atomic number, Z = 11
Electronic configuration of sodium is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1.
So for sodium containing N atoms there are 2N levels of 1s, 2N levels of 2s,
6N levels of 2p and N levels of 3s.

As inter atomic spacing in the solid reduces the

E overlap is maximum for the outermost 3s electrons.

The outermost or valence electrons of adjacent

atoms interact with each other but the inner or
non-valence electrons do not interact for any
minimum atomic spacing because they are closely
associated with the nuclei and minimum for the
innermost 1s electrons.
Atomic spacing

Note that, 3s level of each atom can accommodate 2N electrons, but actually has only 1N
electrons. Thus this band is half filled.
Formation of bands

Overlap of 1S levels of all atoms forms a band. Similarly overlap of 2S, 2P, and
3S levels of all atoms form bands.
Band is formed by overlap of energy levels of same energies or slightly
different energies.

In the energy band structure the topmost filled

band with electrons at absolute zero
temperature is called ‘valence band’ as it
contains valence electrons.
3S1

2P6 The first allowed empty band after valence band

Energy

at absolute zero temperature is called

2S2 ‘conduction band’.
1S2
The difference between the energies of the bottom of
the conduction band and top of the valence band is
At 0 K (Absolute zero Temp.) called ‘band gap’ or ‘forbidden energy gap’.
Classification of Solids on the basis of Band Theory

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

C. B. C. B.
1. Energy C. B.
level Eg ≈ 5 eV Eg ≈ 1 eV
diagram V. B.
V. B. V. B.

2. Energy gap overlap of V.B. & C.B ≈ 5 eV ≈ 1 eV

3. At 0 K insulator insulator insulator
4. At room temp. good conductor insulator conductor

5. > room temp. good conductor may be conductor good conductor

6. conductivity good bad betn conductor
& insulator
7. Examples Na, Al, Cu Diamond, wood Si, Ge, GaAs
Classification of semiconductors:
1. Intrinsic semiconductor:
Ge Ge Ge

C. B.
Ge
Energy

Ge Ge
Eg ≈ 1 eV

V. B.
Ge Ge Ge

Heat

If the number of holes in the valence band is equal to the number of electrons in the conduction
band the semiconductor is said to be ‘Intrinsic Semiconductor’. i.e. ‘extremely pure semiconductor’.
These are tetravalent atoms and each atom is bonded to four other atoms by strong covalent bond.

Current can flow both due to migration of holes in valence band (Holes are immobile) and due to migration of
electrons in the conduction band. Thus both electrons and holes are the charge carriers in the semiconductor.
2. Extrinsic semiconductor:
i. P-type semiconductor:
When some atoms of tetravalent Ge are replaced by a trivalent impurity like
Boron having 3 valence electrons it forms a ‘P-type semiconductor’.

Ge Ge Ge C.B.
C.B.
Ec Ec

Ge Ge
B Ge
Ea Ea
Hole Ev Ev
V.B. V.B.
Ge Ge Ge

At 0 K At room temp.

At room temperature there will be excess number of holes in the valence band than the
number of electrons in the conduction band.
Contribution of holes to the current is dominant. Such a semiconductor is called ‘P- type
Semiconductor’. Holes are majority carriers.
2. Extrinsic semiconductor:
ii. N-type semiconductor:
When some atoms of tetravalent Ge are replaced by a pentavalent impurity like
Phosphorus having 5 valence electrons it forms a ‘N-type semiconductor’.

Ge Ge Ge
C.B. C.B.
Ec Ec
Ed Ed
Ge Ge
P Ge

Ev Ev
Electron V.B. V.B.
Ge Ge Ge

At 0 K At room temp.
At room temperature there will be excess number of electrons in the conduction band than the number
of holes in the valance band.
Contribution of electrons to the current is dominant. Such a semiconductor is called ‘N- type
Semiconductor’. Electrons are majority carriers.
Electrical Conductivity of Conductors/semiconductors:

Such directed motion is called as ‘drift’.

Velocity acquired by the electrons due
to applied electric field is known as
‘drift velocity’.
V
This drift velocity depends on the applied electric field E.

Therefore, electron mobility is defined as ‘average drift velocity acquired by

the electron per unit electric field’.
Consider a conductor/semiconductor of length ‘l ’ and cross section area A.
Let voltage V is applied across the conductor/semiconductor. The current flowing in the conductor
is due to electrons and in semiconductor is due to both electrons and holes.
A l A l
I I

V V

I I
Current I is, the total charge crossing the volume, per unit time.

In conductors In semiconductors
Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors:
In intrinsic semiconductors,

Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors:

P-type:
For P-type semiconductors,

N-type:
For N-type semiconductors,
Problems:
1. The mobilities of carriers in intrinsic germanium sample at room
temperature are . If
the density of electrons is same as holes and is equal to ,
calculate the conductivity of germanium sample.
(Ans: 2.12 mho/m)
2. Calculate the number of acceptors to be added to a germanium sample to
obtain the resistivity of 10 Ω cm. Given, .
(Ans: )

3. Calculate the conductivity of pure silicon at room temperature when the

concentration of charge carriers is .
Given that,
(Ans: )

4. Determine the mobility of electrons in copper assuming that each atom

contributes one free electron for conduction. Given for Cu,

(Ans: )
5. An N-type semiconductor is to have a resistivity 10 Ω.cm, calculate the
number of donor atoms which must be added to achieve this.
Given, .
(Ans: )

6. Calculate the energy gap in silicon, given that it is transparent to radiation

of wavelength greater than 11000 A0.
(Ans: )

7. In germanium the energy gap is about 0.75 eV. What is the wavelength at
which germanium start to absorb light?
(Ans: 16575 A0 )

8. Find the drift velocity of an electron in Silver wire of radius 1 mm and

carrying a current of 2 A.
Given : Avagadro number = 6.025 X 1023 /gm mole, Density of Silver is
10.5 gm/cc, At. wt. of Silver = 108.
(Ans: ne = 6 X 1028 /m3 , ve = 7 X 10-4 m/s.)
Fermi-Dirac Probability Distribution Function:

Why this function?

This function gives the probability of occupancy of a particular energy level by an electron
at particular temperature.
When N atoms come together we should analyze the problem exactly by writing and solving
Schrodinger equation for the N atom system.

Such equations will involve so many variables, that an exact solution will be practically impossible.

Therefore we use statistical concepts to extend our understanding of single atom system to
many atom systems.

We know that 1 mole of matter contains approximately 1023 atoms. So we will have about
1023 energy levels in an energy band and width of a band is approximately 1 eV.

We are concern about whether an electron is present in the particular energy level or not.
The probability that an energy level E is occupied by an electron, at temperature T K is given by,

Where,
Ef = Fermi Energy (Energy of Fermi level)
k = Boltzmann constant.

P(E) is called Fermi Dirac Probability Distribution Function and kT is the thermal
energy of the electron at temperature T 0K.
Fermi Level:
It is the highest possible level of an electron at absolute zero temperature.
It need not be the energy level of an electron.
It is a statistical concept given for our understanding.
It is a reference energy level between valence band and conduction band to
understand weather the energy levels above it or below it are occupied or not.
The shape of F-D distribution is as shown,

Probability that all the energy

P(E) levels below fermi-level are
At T= 0 K occupied by electrons is 1 and that
above fermi-level is 0.
1
At T1  0 K
As we increase the temperature
above 0 K the probability of
0.5 At T2  T1 K
occupancy of levels above fermi-
level increases and that of below
fermi level decreases.
0
Ef E
We note that, at 0 K,
1.

Thus at absolute zero temperature the probability of finding an electron with energy less
than Fermi energy is 1. i.e. all the levels below Fermi level are occupied by the electrons.

2.

Thus at absolute zero temperature the probability of finding an electron with energy
greater than Fermi energy is 0. i.e. all the levels above Fermi level are empty.76

At T > 0 K,

Thus for any finite temperature T, Ef is the energy level for which probability of finding
an electron is 0.5. It means that there is equal probability that energy levels above and
below Fermi level are occupied by electrons.
Position of Fermi level in Semiconductors

1) Intrinsic Semiconductors:
We assume that,
i. The widths of conduction band and valence band are small in
comparison with band gap.
ii. Because of small widths, for all practical purposes, all energy levels in a
band have same energy.
iii. At 00K the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is
completely empty, the solid acts as a insulator.
Let,
Ec = Energy of conduction band.
Ev = Energy of valence band.
nc = Number of electrons in conduction band at T 0K.
nv = Number of electrons in valence band at T 0K.
N = nc + nv = Total number of electrons in valence band and conduction
band at T 0K.
According to Fermi Dirac probability distribution function,

We know,

Similarly,
From equations (2) & (3) we get,
 E C. B.
EC
Eg
Ef
EV
V. B.

This proves that Fermi energy level is exactly midway between EC and EV.
i.e. Ef is at the centre of forbidden energy gap.
Position of Fermi level in Semiconductors
2) Extrinsic Semiconductors:
i. P-Type: ii. N-Type:

C. B. C. B.
EC EC
Ed Ef
At T = 0 K Eg Eg
Ea
EV Ef EV
V. B. V. B.

C. B. C. B.
EC EC
Ed Ef
At T > 0 K Eg Eg
Ea
Ef
EV EV
V. B. V. B.
Problems:

1. In an N-type semiconductor the fermi-level lays 0.3 eV below the

conduction band at room temperature. If the temperature is increased to
330 K, find the position of Fermi-level.
Hint:

(Ans: Position of fermi level = 0.33 eV below the C.B.)

P-N Junction Diode:
P N
P N C.B. C.B.
EC
Efn
Efp
EV
V.B. V.B.

Non-equilibrium
Barrier
P Barrier N

C.B C.B.
EC ECB
eV
Efn

Efp
EV EV
Depletion region V.B. V.B.
Barrier potential
Equilibrium
 Barrier
Biasing of Diode:- Forward Biasing :- C.B
Unbiased:- EC
Barrier
P N
C.B.
EC
Efp Efn
EV
V.B.

EV
V.B.
Forward Biased:- Barrier
Reduced Barrier
P N C.B
EC e(VB – V)
I I
C.B.
EC
Efp Efn
EV
V.B.

EV
V V.B.
 Barrier
Biasing of Diode:- Reverse Biasing :- C.B
Unbiased:- EC
Barrier
P N
C.B.
EC
Efp Efn
EV
V.B.

EV
V.B.
Reverse Biased:- Barrier
P N C.B
EC
e(VB + V)
I I
C.B.
EC
Efp Efn
EV
V.B.

Increased Barrier EV
V V.B.
Equation of Barrier Potential:

The internal potential barrier “VB” can be calculated from the electron concentrations
in p and n regions of the diode.
P N
Barrier

Electron Energy decreases

Electron Energy increases
C.B

Hole Energy decreases

Hole Energy increases

(Eg+ eVB) EC
eVB
C.B.
EC
Efp Efn
EV
V.B.

EV
V.B.

The electron concentration in the conduction band on the n-side can be written as,
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑔 −𝐸𝑓 /𝑘𝑇
−−−− −(1)
Where, Nc = Concentration of density of states

Due to the barrier potential “VB” , the band gap energy on p-region increases by
(Eg+ eVB). The electron concentration on p-side can be written as
− 𝐸𝑔 +𝑒𝑉𝐵 −𝐸𝑓 /𝑘𝑇
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 −−−− −(2)
 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑉𝐵
ൗ𝑘𝑇
Dividing the two equations, we get =𝑒 −−−−− −(3)
𝑛𝑝

Above equation shows that at thermal equilibrium, concentrations of electrons on

both sides of the junction are related through Boltzmann factor.
𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑛
Taking log of both sides, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑙𝑛 −−− −(4)
𝑒 𝑛𝑝
𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝
This equation can be written as, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑙𝑛 −−−− −(5)
𝑒 𝑛𝑝 𝑝𝑝

At room temperature, all the impurities are ionized, hence: 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 & 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴

Also, 𝑛𝑝 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2

𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴
Thus, equation (5) can be written as, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑒 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑘𝑇
The factor is of the dimensions of voltage and is denoted by VT =Thermal Voltage. Thus,
𝑒

𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 2
−−−− −(6)
𝑛𝑖

Thus, the barrier potential equation indicates that barrier potential in a junction diode depends on the equilibrium
concentration of the impurities in p and n regions and does not depend on the charge density in the depletion region.
Problems:

1. Calculate the built in potential of Germanium PN junction at 300 K when P side is

doped with 5 × 1016 acceptors/cm3 and N side with 5 × 1014 donors/cm3.

(Ans:
Ideal Diode Equation:

When the diode is forward biased with potential 𝑽𝑭 , the potential barrier is lowered by an amount
of energy 𝒆𝑽𝑭 and the probability of a majority carrier crossing the junction and diffusion current
density is increased by a factor of 𝒆𝒆𝑽𝑭/𝒌𝑻

Thus, diffusion current density components 𝐽∗ℎ𝑝 and 𝐽∗𝑒𝑛 in forward bias diode are given by,

𝐽∗ ℎ𝑝 = 𝐽ℎ𝑝 𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇 = 𝐽ℎ𝑛 𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇 and Where, 𝐽ℎ𝑝 and 𝐽𝑒𝑛 are diffusion current
densities in unbiased diode.
𝐽∗ 𝑒𝑛 = 𝐽𝑒𝑛 𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇 = 𝐽𝑒𝑝 𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇

The drift current density components have not changed and have the same magnitude as in equilibrium case.

Therefore, the net hole current density across the forward bias junction is ,

𝐽ℎ = 𝐽∗ ℎ𝑝 −𝐽ℎ𝑛 = 𝐽ℎ𝑛 (𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇 -1)

Similarly, the net electron current density across the forward bias junction is,
𝐽𝑛 = 𝐽∗ 𝑒𝑛−𝐽𝑒𝑝 = 𝐽𝑒𝑝 ( 𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝐹/𝑘𝑇 -1)
The total current density across the forward bias junction is the sum of electron and
hole current density components. Thus,
𝑒𝑉𝐹 𝑒𝑉𝐹
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑒 + 𝐽ℎ = 𝐽ℎ𝑛 − 𝐽𝑒𝑛 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) = 𝐽0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐼
𝐽= is current density. Thus, above equation can be written as
𝐴
𝑒𝑉𝐹
𝐽 𝐽0
𝐼= 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) Where, 𝐼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼0 =
𝐴 𝐴

The above equation is known as ideal diode equation where, VF is forward voltage. In
reverse bias it will be replaced by -VR and I0 denotes reverse saturation current.
Solar Cell:

A device which convert light energy into electricity is a solar cell.

Solar cell is basically a P-N junction diode and it work on the principle of ‘photovoltaic effect’.

When light falls on a p-n junction produces a potential difference across it. This potential
difference is capable of driving a current through an external circuit, producing useful work.
This phenomenon is called the ‘photovoltaic effect’.

As thermal energy produces electron-hole pairs in the depletion region to contribute to the
reverse current in a diode, current can also be made to flow by illuminating the diode with light
of energy greater than the energy gap of the semiconductor.

It means that, the light energy too creates electron-hole pairs. (in the form of minority
carriers) and therefore leads to flow of reverse current.

When the junction is unbiased, the barrier potential prevents the flow of current.

But if light falls on junction the generation of electron-hole pairs produces a potential
countering the barrier potential and therefore current can flow even with V = 0.
Construction:
OHMIC CONTACT
µA
CURRENT SUN LIGHT
COLLECTION GRID

mV
An antireflection coating is applied to
LOAD reduce the amount of light lost by
reflection form the surface.
0.2 µm N - REGION
P - REGION
300 µm
DIFFUSED LAYER

Energy level diagram:

The electron-hole pairs are p-type
generated as a minority carriers. C.B.
light n-type
EC
When they come at the junction they face the C.B.
barrier potential which separates them. The EC
electrons moves from P to N region because Ef Ef
EV
there are number of lower energy levels are
V.B.
available in N-region. EV
V.B.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell:

Solar cell parameters:

Isc (Voc,Isc) 1. Isc = Short circuit current.
= The maximum current flowing through
I Im the solar cell when the resistance across the
solar cell is zero. i.e. when the circuit is short.

2. Voc = Open circuit voltage.

= The maximum voltage across the solar
cell when the resistance across the solar
(0,0) cell is infinite. i.e. when the circuit is open.
Vm Voc V

3. Pideal = Isc .Voc = Ideal power of solar cell. (practically not possible)

4. Poutput = Im .Vm = Actual power of solar cell. (practical power)

5. Fill Factor = FF 6. Efficiency

Merits of Solar Cell:
1. It is clean and environment friendly source of power.
2. It is an inexhaustible source of power.

De-merits of Solar Cell:

1. Solar cells are not useful in the night time as the sunlight is not available.
2. Very low practical efficiency (not more than 15 %).
3. Manufacturing of solar cells (PV cells) and storage devices is costly.

Applications of Solar Cell:

1. Telecommunication: Many tele-communication systems can be found in remote
areas, where it is difficult to supply power from power stations. It is possible by solar
cells. Many of the systems are used in critical applications such as railway signaling,
telecom towers, marine lights, TV transmitters etc.
2. Photovoltaic power plants: Now day’s large PV plants of MW range are connected to
public grid.
3. Disaster relief: Small PV cells are very good power supply sources in case of
natural disaster.
4. Electricity source for protected areas: An example of this application is a natural
park or other environmentally protected area. Negative influence on the
environment is avoided by application of PV cells in such areas.
5. Power source for satellites: This is very important application of PV cells. Because
there is no any source in the space other than solar energy to provide energy to
satellites and orbital stations in the space.
6. Alarm and control system power supply: Power can be provided to fire alarms,
burglar alarms and other alarm systems by PV cells. Usually an alarm system is
connected with a remote monitoring control system and it is powered by PV cells.
7. In medical field: PV cells proved to be very good to supply power to medical clinics
in rural areas. Sterilization equipments, vaccine refrigerators, air conditioners can
be powered by PV cells.
8. Street lighting: PV street lighting is the most applicable in rural areas where no
public grid is available.
9. Solar home systems: PV cells can be use to power many household equipments
such as solar water heaters, cooking equipments, emergency lamps etc.
Hall Effect:
According to Hall effect, when a strip of metal carrying current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, a potential difference is developed across the strip
perpendicular to both direction of current and the magnetic field.

It was later shown that, semiconductors also exhibits Hall effect, and the
direction of electric field developed because of induced potential depends on
whether the current is due to electrons or holes.

Y Side 2 As soon as the magnetic field is

switched on, then according to
Fleming’s right hand rule, the electrons
d will experience a magnetic (Lorentz)
N-type force in negative Y direction.
w
X
I
B Side 1
Z
The magnitude of magnetic force is given by,
Where, v = drift velocity.
e = charge on electron.
The equal and opposite force acting on the electrons is,

From equations (1) & (2) we get,

From equations (3) & (4) we get,

We know that,

Therefore equation (5) becomes,

Therefore equation (7) becomes,

In equation (9) the quantity is the property of the material of the

specimen and is called as ‘Hall coefficient’ ‘RH’

Therefore equation (9) becomes,

 We know that,

Thus Hall Effect can be used for,

1. Determination of type of semiconductor

2. Determination of carrier concentration.
3. Determination of mobility of carriers.
Problems:

1. A silver wire is in the form of ribbon 0.5 cm wide and 0.1 mm thick. When a current of 2
amp passes through the ribbon perpendicular to 0.8 Tesla magnetic field, calculate the
Hall voltage produced. (Given: For Silver, Density = 10.5 gm/cm3, Atomic wt. = 108 gm.
and Anagadro number = 6.02 X 1023 /gm.mole.)
(Ans: ne = 6 X 1028 /m3, VH = 0.333 X 10-7 V.)

2. A copper specimen having length 1 m, width 1 cm & thickness 1 mm is conducting 1 amp

current along its length and is applied with a magnetic field of 1 Tesla along its thickness.
Hall voltage of 0.1 μV is developed across its width. Calculate Hall coefficient and mobility
of electrons in copper. (Given: conductivity of copper = 5.8 X 107 mho/m.
(Ans: RH = 1 X 10-10 m3/ C, µ = 5.8 X 10-3 m2 /V.sec)

3. A slab of copper 2 mm in length, 1.5 cm wide and 3 mm thick is placed in the uniform magnetic
field of magnitude 0.4 Tesla. When a current of 75 A flow along the length, the voltage measured
across the thickness is 0.81 µV. Calculate the concentration of mobile electrons in copper
(Ans: ne = 1.54 X 1028 /m3).
4. An N – type germanium sample has a donor density of 1021 /m3 . It is arranged in a Hall
experiment having magnetic field of 0.5 Tesla and the current density is 500 A/m2. Find the
Hall voltage produced across the two surfaces of the sample,3 mm apart from each other.
(Ans: VH = 4.7 X 10-3 V)

5. A sample of Si is doped with 1017 phosphorus atoms/cm3 . What will be the resistivity of the
sample if the mobility of charge carriers is 700 cm2/ V.sec. The sample is 100 µm thick,
carrying current of 1 mA through it. If transverse magnetic field 10-5 Tesla is applied along its
thickness, what is the Hall Voltage developed across it.

(Ans: ρ = 0.0893 Ω.cm, VH = 62.5 X 10-6 V)

Questions:

1. Describe in brief the formation of energy bands in solids. [4]

2. What is Fermi energy? Show the location of Fermi energy levels in intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors. [6]
3. Classify the elements in to conductors, insulators and semiconductors on
the basis of band theory of solids. [6]
4. Explain what is Fermi Dirac probability distribution function? Show that the
Fermi level lies at the centre of the energy gap in an intrinsic
semiconductor. [7]
5. Explain the terms valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy
gap. [3]
6. What are transistors? Explain the working of PNP / NPN transistor on the
basis of energy level diagram. [6]
7. Discuss the working of NPN transistors. Explain with respect to the energy
band diagram. [6]
8. Give the energy band picture of P-N junction diode and explain the effect of
forward and reverse biasing on the band picture. [6]
OR Explain the working of diode in forward and reverse bias on the basis of
energy level diagram [6]
9. “P-N junction is a unidirectional device”. Explain. [2]
10. Explain principle, construction and working of solar cell. [6]
11. Explain the working of a solar cell. Give the significance of the cell
parameters Isc, Voc and fill factor. [6]
12. Discuss application of a solar cell. [4]
13. Derive the expression for conductivity of an intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductor. [6]
14. Explain Hall Effect. Derive the equation of Hall Voltage and Hall coefficient.
[7]
Thank You