Module-3

Recombination in semiconductors
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• Relation between absorption and emission

spectra
• Stokes shift in optical transitions
• Band to band recombination
• Donor acceptor and impurity band transitions
• Deep level transitions
• Auger recombination
Recombination and generation
•  Recombination and generation are always happening in
semiconductors, both optically and thermally, and their rates are in
balance at equilibrium.
• The product of the electron and hole densities n and p is a constant
[ ] . 
• At equilibrium, recombination and generation are maintained, by
occurring at equal rates
• . When there is a surplus of carriers ,the rate of recombination
becomes greater than the rate of generation.
• Likewise, when there is a deficit of carriers the generation rate
becomes greater than the recombination rate, again driving the system
back towards equilibrium.
• As the electron moves from one energy band to another, the energy
and momentum that it has lost or gained must go to or come from the
other particles involved in the process (e.g. photons, electron, or the 
system of vibrating lattice atoms).
 Radiative and Non radiative
recombination
•For continuous carrier generation by optical excitation or injection, a quasi equilibrium or steady
state is produced.

•Electrons and holes are created and annihilated in pairs and depending on the injection level a
steady state excess density
∆n= ∆p is established in the crystal.

•When excitation source is removed the density of excess carriers returns to equilibrium values n0
and p0.

•The decay of excess carriers follows an exponential law with respect to time (exp(-t/τ) where τ is
defined as life time of the carriers.

•The life time is determined by the combination of intrinsic and extrinsic parameters.

•The excess carriers decay by radiative and non radiative recombination in which excess energy is
dissipated by photons and phonons.
•
Definition of Recombination
• Recombination is a process whereby electrons
and holes are destroyed
• Generation-
A process whereby electros and holes are
generated
Classification:
1.Radiative recombination-Photon
2.Non-radiative recombination-Lattice vibration
Radiative recombination
• It occurs when an electron in CB recombines
with a hole in VB and the excess energy is
emitted in the form of photon.
• Optical process associated with Radiative
transitions are
• 1. Absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission
 Bulk recombination rate
• Bulk recombination rate (R) =
Radiative recombination rate + non radiative recombination rate

bulk recombinat ion rate ( R  1/τ ) 

radiative recombinat ion rate ( Rr  1/τ r )  nonradiati ve recombinat ion rate( Rnr  1/τ nr )

Bulk recombination rate

dn n
R 
dt 
When there is no external carrier injection, the excess density decays exponentially
due to electron-hole recombination
n(t )  n0 e  t / 
n is the excess carrier density
n0 : initial injected excess electron density
 : carrier lifetime.
Internal quantum efficiency
• Internal quantum efficiency or radiative recombination
efficiency is defined as the ratio between the radiative
recombination rate and the sum of radiative and non radiative
recombination rate

int  Rr /( Rr  Rnr )
Rr  nr 
int   
Rr  Rnr  r   nr  r
I hcI
Pint  int h  int
q q
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
Generation Processes
Band-to-Band R-G Center Impact Ionization
Recombination Processes
Direct R-G Center Auger

Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

• A double-heterojunction InGaAsP LED emitting at a peak
wavelength of 1310 nm has radiative and non-radiative
recombination lifetimes of 25 and 90 ns respectively.
Determine the bulk recombination lifetime and the internal
quantum efficiency at a drive current of 35 mA

• ηint= 0.782, τ=19.56 ns

• The
  concept of quasi fermi level is useful to provide the changes of
carrier concentration as a function of position in a semiconductor.

• Assume an n-type semiconductor with an equilibrium electron density

(the donor density)is uniformly irradiated so as to produce lectron hole
pairs with a generation rate G.

• The non equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are given by,
n=
p=(
Under steady state,
the recombination rate [R] = the generation rate [G].

• Band-to-band recombination occurs when an electron moves from its

conduction band state into the empty valence band state associated with
the hole.

• This band-to-band transition is typically also a radiative transition in

direct bandgap semiconductors.
Band to band radiative recombination
•  The simplest carrier decay process is Band to band recombination,
whose rate without momentum conservation is given by
np
Where is the coefficient for Band to band recombination [ .]
In terms of equilibrium and excess carrier densities,

where = .
The spontaneous radiative recombination rate for excess carrier ,
= / and therefore -
=
= +
•  From the previous equations,
[+ ()+()]
= [(+ ]
[since, R = n /τ]
1) When , at high injection level,(relevant to laser operation)

When life time changes with ,this will be bimolecular

recombination regime.
2)At low injection levels, ,then

which remains constant,being determined by carrier

concentration.
3) For intrinsic semiconductor under low level injection ,
and ( i.e)
•  -Recombination co-efficient depends on band gap.
For direct band gap S.C , is ranging from.
For indirect band gap S.C , is ranging from.

• Problem
• Determine for GaAs having under high and low level injections for
= 7x.
• Solution
at high injection level of ,

at low injection level of , for same

 
• Trap-assisted recombination occurs when an electron falls into a
"trap", an energy level within the bandgap caused by the presence
of a foreign atom or a structural defect. Once the trap is filled it
cannot accept another electron. The electron occupying the trap, in a
second step, moves into an empty valence band state, thereby
completing the recombination process. We will refer to this process
as Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination.

• Auger recombination is a process in which an electron and a hole

recombine in a band-to-band transition, but now the resulting
energy is given off to another electron or hole. The involvement of
a third particle affects the recombination rate so that we need to treat
Auger recombination differently from band-to-band recombination.
• Compare the approximate radiative minority carrier lifetimes
in gallium arsenide and silicon when the minority carriers are
electrons injected into the p type region which has a hole
concentration of 1018 cm-3 .The injected electron density is
small compared with the majority carrier density. The
recombination coefficients are given by 7.21x10-10 cm3s-1 and
1.79x10-15 cm3s-1 for GaAs and Si respectively.
•  Calculate radiative lifetime for CdSb having under high
and low level injections for = 2.39x.
• Low=0.418ms
• High=4.18 µs