Fundamentals of Solar

Energy
Lecture notes
By Katharina Theis-Bröhl
SS 2021
Solar Cells

2
 Mode of operation of a solar cell

Light incidence

Front contact
Antireflection coating

Space charge
region

hole

Back contact
Free electron

3
Bis hier her
 Recombination
Recombination due to impurities:
• If the perfect crystal is contaminated by impurities or crystal imperfections,
the energy gap is not empty and has extra levels
• For the free electron these levels are like stair cases down to the valence
band.
• Recombination centers are also called “traps”

Examples: Fe and S impurity atoms in Si

4
 Diffusion length
Demand for crystals for solar cells:
• Possibly monocrystalline
• Of high purity

 Diffusion length LN is a measure of the crystal quality. It describes the

distance an electron can cover until recombination

DN: diffusion coefficient:

LN  DN   N  50...500 m for Si DN=35 cm2/s for c-Si
N: electron life time

6
 What happens in the different cell areas?
Light incidence Antireflection layer

n+-emitter

Space charge
region

Diffusion
length LN
(100 m)

8
 Absorption in the different areas
(1) In the emitter: due to high doping LN is very small. Therefore
recombination is highly probable before the electron reaches the space
charge region. Topmost part of the emitter is called “dead layer”.
(2) In the space charge region: the field separates the electron from the hole
and drives the different carriers to different directions. Probability of
recombination is small.
(3) Within the diffusion length of the electrons: electrons does not feel a
field and diffuses as minory charge carrier through the crystal until it feels
the field of the space charge region. It is attracted by the field and comes
into the n+-emitter where it becomes a majority charge carrier.
(4) Without the diffusion length of the electrons: the electrons diffuses
through the crystal until recombination  the crystal gets warmed up.

9
 Back Surface Field
• A big “danger” for the electrons in the lower part I the metal-
semiconductor transition because of highly surface recombination.
• A common trick for avoiding this effect is a highly doped p+ layer
between metal and semiconductor
• Holes diffuse from the p+- into the p-range leaving back negative
acceptor atoms and causing an electrical field (back surface field)
• It acts like an electrical
mirror and bringing back the
electrons into the cell towards
the space charge region.

10
 Absorption efficiency
• The current first depends on the number of incident photons
• Second it depends on the absorption efficiency
number of absorbed photons N ph,abs Eabs E1  E2
abs    
number of incident photons N ph E0 E0

E1  1  R   E0
E 2  E x  d   E1  e d
Irradiance E(x)

abs  1  R   1  e d 

absorbed 11
part 𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑠
 Quantum efficiency
• Not all electron-hole pair contribute to the photocurrent.
 Definition of the external quantum efficiency

number of usable electron - hole pairs Nehp

ext  
number of incident photons N ph

• There is also an internal quantum efficiency which accounts for losses due
to reflection

ext
int 
1 R

12
 Spectral sensitivity
• The spectral sensitivity S(l) indicates which photocurrent is generated due
to a certain optical power impinging on the solar cell.

S l  
I ph

Q t 

Nehp  q
 ext l  
q

q
 l ext l 
Popt Wopt t  Nph  hf hc l  hc
𝑞 1.6 ∙ 10−19 𝐴𝑠 1 𝐴
= = ∙
ℎ𝑐 6.6 ∙ 10−34 𝑊𝑠 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 1.24 𝜇𝑚 𝑊

l 𝑁𝑒ℎ𝑝
S l    ext l 
A
 with 𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
1.24 m W 𝑁𝑝ℎ

13
Spectral sensitivity of c-Si and high efficiency cell

High efficiency cell

Spectral sensitivity S in A/V
standard cell

Wavelength l in nm
Quantum efficiency is relatively low:
• in the blue range (400-500 nm): light basically is absorbed in the
n+-emitter  strong recombination
• above 1100 nm (infrared): absorption in the deeper range of the
solar cell  energy of the photons to low to overcome the band gap
14
 Characteristic line

Producer oriented arrow system:

Solar cell operation

Irradiation
Solar cell symbol:
V

Characteristic line equation:

 mkT 
qVqU
m: idealization factor
I  I ph  ID  I ph  IS  e  1
(useful for real solar cells, m = 1-2)
  15
 Characteristic quantities of a solar cell
𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝐷 𝑉
𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉
• Short-circuit current ISC : current when shortening the solar cell
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝐼 𝑉 = 0 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝑃ℎ 𝑒 0 − 1 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ
• Open-circuit voltage VOC: state when current is equal to zero.
From the characteristic line equation follows for I=0 and with Iph=ISC:

𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉 𝐼 = 0 = 𝑚 ∙ ∙ 𝑙𝑛 + 1 ≈ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 with 𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞 𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝑞
16
 Characteristic quantities of a solar cell
𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝐷 𝑉
𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉
• Maximum power point MPP : operating point when VI  max.
𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃
• Filling factor FF: ratio between MPP and product of open-circuit
voltage and short-circuit current (0.75-0.85 for Si cells and 0.6-0.75 for
thin film cells): 𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 1 + 𝑙𝑛 + 0.72
𝑉𝑇
𝐹𝐹 = = ≈
𝑉𝑂𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶
+1 17
𝑉𝑇
 Characteristic quantities of a solar cell
𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝐷 𝑉
𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉
• Efficiency : gives the ratio between the electrical power PMPP with
respect to the irradiated power Popt

𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝜂= = =
𝑃𝑂𝑝𝑡 𝐸∙𝐴 𝐸∙𝐴

18
 Temperature dependence of a solar cell
• With increasing temperature  more thermal motion of the electrons
 intrinsic conduction density ni rises  higher saturation current IS
 lower open circuit voltage VOC
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ∆𝑊𝐺 𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 +𝑚∙ , 𝑉𝑇 =
𝐼𝑆 𝐵 𝑞 𝑞

with  DN DP 
B  A  q  N02   
 LN  N A LP  ND 

• Change of open circuit voltage with temperature

(differentiate and then apply equation above again):

𝑑 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑚𝑘 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 − 𝑚 ∙ ∆𝑊𝐺 Τ𝑞

= ∙ 𝑙𝑛 =
𝑑𝑇 𝑞 𝐵 𝑇

19
 Temperature dependence of a solar cell

• For typical Si-cell (m=1):

∆ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 0.6 𝑉 − 1.12 𝑉 𝑚𝑉
= = −1.7
∆𝜗 300 𝐾 𝐾
• Up to now it is not considered, that the band gap and the intrinsic carrier
concentration of the semiconductor are also temperature dependent.
Therefore, a more accurate consideration gives:
∆ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 − 𝑚 ∙ ∆𝑊𝐺0 Τ𝑞 − 𝛾 ∙ 𝑉𝑇
=
∆𝜗 𝑇

with: ∆𝑊𝐺0 : Bandgap at T=0; for Si: ∆𝑊𝐺0 =1.2 eV

𝛾: Temperature parameter, typically 𝛾=1…4

• For typical Si-cell (𝛾 =3):

∆ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑚𝑉
= −2.3 ≅ −0.4% /𝐾
∆𝜗 𝐾
20
 Temperature dependence of a solar cell

• The short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 increases slightly with increasing temperature by
+0.06%/K.

• Furthermore, the filling factor FF decreases with increasing temperature as it

𝑉
depends on 𝑂𝐶 (increasing temperature increases 𝑉𝑇 )
𝑉𝑇

• Temperature coefficient of power 𝑇𝐶𝑃 :

𝑇𝐶𝑃 = 𝑇𝐶 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 0.4 … 0.5% /𝐾

 The power of a Si solar cell sinks by 0.4 to 0.5 % per Kelvin.

21
 Temperature dependence of a c-Si solar cell

MPP

Current I in A

, Voltage V in Volt
Power P in W

Voltage V in Volt
22
 Electrical Desicription of Real Solar Cells
1. Simplified Model
• This model is already known
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝑆 𝑚∙𝑉
𝑒 𝑇 −1

𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
2. Standard Model (Single-Diode Model)
• This model accounts for electric losses
 For Ohmic losses (at front contacts and
metal- semiconductor interface)
with series resistance RS
 For leak currects at the edges and for point
short circuits of the p-n junction
𝑉𝐷 with shunt resistance RSh
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼𝑆ℎ 𝐼𝑆ℎ =
𝑅𝑆ℎ 𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑚∙𝑉 𝑇 −1 −
𝑅𝑆ℎ
23
(This equ. can only be solved numerically)
Influence of RS and RSh on characteristic curve

The filling factor

significantly decreases
• with rising RS and
• falling RSh

24
 Electrical Desicription of Real Solar Cells
3. Two-Diode Model
• Up to know: no recombination is considered (in space charge region)

• Two-Diode Model:
a. Diffusion current is modeled by a first diode with m=1
b. Recombination current is modeled with a second diode with m=2

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝐷1 −𝐼𝐷1 −𝐼𝑆ℎ

𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆 𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆

−1 −1
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝑆1 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑆2 𝑒 2∙𝑉𝑇 −
𝑅𝑆ℎ
25
 Determination of the Parameters
1. Simplified Equivalent Circuit
• If I-V characteristic curve is available 𝑉
−
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
 paramaters can be derived from it
• Assumprion: 𝐼𝑃ℎ = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑚 = 1

However, … Agreement of curve calculated from

these parameters is usually poor

HELP: Simulation of progression

of the curve with varying 𝑚 and 𝐼𝑆
(with Excel or Mathematica)

Still clear deviation between

measured and simulated curve
after optimization of parameters

26
 Determination of the Parameters

2. Standard Equivalent Circuit

Approximation
quality is much
better!
Starting points of
a) Short Circuit Point 𝑅𝑆 and 𝑅𝑆ℎ are very
 𝐼𝐷 can be ignored important (slopes)

𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝑑𝑉
𝑅𝑆ℎ 𝑅𝑆ℎ =− ቤ
𝑑𝐼 1 𝑅𝑆 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑉=0
=− − ∙
𝑑𝑉 𝑅𝑆ℎ 𝑅𝑆ℎ 𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝐼 1 1 𝑅𝑆 can be determined from

=− ≈− the slope of the curve at
𝑑𝑉 𝑅𝑆ℎ +𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆ℎ
the open circuit point
27
 Determination of the Parameters
2. Open Circuit Case
 𝑉𝐷 is quite large
 diode becomes low resistant
 𝐼𝑆ℎ can be ignored compared to 𝐼𝐷
𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ − 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑚∙𝑉𝑇 −1

Trick
𝑑 𝐼 𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆 1 𝑑𝑉
= 𝐼𝑆 ∙ 𝑒 𝑚∙𝑉𝑇 ∙ + 𝑅𝑆 = 1 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝐼 𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 𝑑𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = ቤ
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=𝑉
𝑑𝑉 𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉+𝐼𝑅
𝑚∙𝑉
𝑆 𝑂𝐶
= −𝑅𝑆 − ∙𝑒 𝑇
𝑑𝐼 𝐼𝑆
Open circuit: 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶 and 𝐼 = 0 𝑅𝑆ℎ can be determined
from the slope of the curve
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑚 ∙ 𝑉𝑇 −𝑚∙𝑉
− ቤ = 𝑅𝑆 + ∙𝑒 𝑇≈ 𝑅 at the short circuit point
𝑆
𝑑𝐼 𝑉=𝑉 𝐼𝑆
𝑂𝐶 28
Summary

𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑅𝑆ℎ =− ቤ ≈− ቤ
𝑑𝐼 𝑉=0 ∆𝐼 𝑉=0

𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑅𝑆 = − ቤ ≈− ቤ
𝑑𝐼 𝑉=𝑉 ∆𝐼 𝑉=𝑉
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶

Good agreement of measured and

simulated characteristic curve
29
 Efficiency of a solar cell
So far:
1. Absorption efficiency
𝑁𝑃ℎ,𝑎𝑏𝑠
𝜂 𝑎𝑏𝑠 = = 1 − 𝑅 1 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑑 𝑉𝐷 𝑉
𝑁𝑃ℎ
2. Quantum efficiency 𝑁𝑒ℎ𝑝
𝜂 𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
External 𝑁𝑃ℎ

𝜂 𝑒𝑥𝑡
Internal 𝜂 𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
1−𝑅

3. Theoretical efficiency
(electrical) 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝜂 𝑇 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝐸∙𝐴

𝑉𝐷

30
 Spectral efficiency of a solar cell
• We define the gap wavelength corresponding to the band gap WG
ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝐺 =
Δ𝑊𝐺

 Light with l>lG: cannot be used for the current generation, we call this part
transmission losses
 Light with l< lG: has a photo energy larger than the band gap WG needed
for the absorption and leading to collisions with the crystal lattice. We call
this part thermalization losses

𝜆 > 𝜆𝐺 : Transmission 𝜆 < 𝜆𝐺 : Thermalization

31
 Theoretical maximal possible current density

• Nph: number of photons impinging in a time interval on a solar cell

 can be found via the spectral irradiance El(l) (at a given wavelength)
by using the integration over all wavelengths of the ratio of optical energy
at a given wavelength Wl(l) with respect to the photon energy WPh
∞ ∞
𝑊𝜆 𝜆 𝐴 ∙ 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 ∙ ∆𝑡 𝐴 ∙ ∆𝑡 ∞
𝑁𝑃ℎ =න ∙ 𝑑𝜆 = න ∙ 𝑑𝜆 = න 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 ∙ 𝜆 ∙ 𝑑𝜆
0 𝑊𝑃ℎ 0 ℎ𝑐 Τ𝜆 ℎ𝑐 0

• Idealization: each absorbed photon generates an electron-hole pair,

however only for l<lg integration only till lg.
• The maximal current density 𝒋𝑴𝒂𝒙 now follows as

𝐼 𝑄 𝑞 ∙ 𝑁𝑃ℎ 𝑞 𝜆𝐺
𝑗𝑀𝑎𝑥 = = = = න 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 ∙ 𝜆 ∙ 𝑑𝜆
𝐴 ∆𝑡 ∙ 𝐴 ∆𝑡 ∙ 𝐴 ℎ𝑐 0
32
 Standard spectrum

𝑚2 ∙𝑛𝑚
𝑊
Spectral irradiance 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 in

visible Wavelength l in nm

• As standard spectrum the AM1.5 spectrum is used enhanced by the

factor 1000/850=1.1976 in order to get a total flux density of 1000 W/m2
as assumed for STC conditions

33
 Maximal current density dependence
on band gap
Current density j in mA/cm2

Band gap Energy ∆𝑊𝐺 in eV

• jmax increases with decreasing WG as semiconductors with smaller

band gaps can use also light in the deep IR
• For Si: jmax =44.1 mA/cm2
34
 Spectral efficiency of a solar cell
• Idealization: the solar cell is able to deliver the full energy of each photon to
the outer circuit maximal possible voltage of a cell:
∆𝑊𝐺
𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 =
𝑞
 Maximal electrical power PEl of the cell:

𝑃𝐸𝑙 = 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝐼𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑗𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝐴

 Maximal spectral efficiency:

𝑃𝐸𝐿 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑗𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑊𝐺 1 𝜆𝐺

𝜂𝑆 = = = ∙ න 𝐸𝜆 𝜆 ∙ 𝜆 ∙ 𝑑𝜆
𝑃𝑂𝑝𝑡 𝐸 𝐸 ℎ𝑐 0

35
 Losses

1. Transmission losses (𝜆 > 𝜆𝐺 )

spectrum hass irradiance of 19,3 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
 transmission losses of 19,3 %

2. Thermalization (𝜆 ≪ 𝜆𝐺 )
losses of 37,5 %

36
 Spectral efficiency of an ideal solar cell

Spectral efficiancy 𝜂𝑆 in %

Band gap Energy ∆𝑊𝐺 in eV

• The efficiency increases with decreasing band gap WG
• Below 1 eV this effect, however, is overcompensated by the decreasing
voltage WG/q and the efficiency decreases
• For the AM1.5 spectrum a maximum of 49% is reached (ideal for Si) 37
Spectral losses by transmission and thermalisation

Spectral losses of a c-Si cell:

Spectral irradiance 𝐸𝜆 𝜆

Thermalizing losses (31,7 %)C

Usuable portion (49 %)

Transmission losses (19,3 %)

Wavelength l in nm

• Photons with l > lG=1.12 m have too less energy to be absorbed

 transmission losses of 19.3%
• Photons with l < lG: from the photon energy only a max. energy as high
as the band gap can be used  thermalizing losses of 31.7%
 Total losses of 51%  maximal 49% of the solar radiation can be used! 38
 Theoretical efficiency
We have to account for two further effects:
1. In a real solar cell not the full voltage Vmax=WG/q can be used
2. Due to the filling factor FF< 100%  IMPP < ISC and VMPP < VOC

We now can re-define the theoretical efficiency as

𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥

𝜂𝑇 = = = 𝐹𝐹 ∙ ∙ ∙ = 𝐹𝐹 ∙ ∙ ∙ 𝑗𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑂𝑝𝑡 𝐸∙𝐴 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐸 𝐴 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐸
𝜂𝑆
𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝜂 𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹 ∙ ∙𝜂
𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆

 For a high efficiency we need a high open circuit voltage and a high filling
factor
39
 Saturation current density
• VOC depends on IS, and IS depend on the band gap
∆𝑊𝐺
−
Saturation current density 𝑗𝑆 = 𝐾𝑆 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 KS  40 000A/cm2

th,max  30.02%
Theoreticall efficiancy 𝜂 𝑇 in %

𝜂
Si: th  28.6%

Band gap Energy ∆𝑊𝐺 in eV

40
 Optical losses by contacts
Front contacts:
tapering

Contact finger

• Losses due to shading by the contact fingers  buried contacts

Standard contacts Buried contacts 43

 Optical losses
Due to reflection at the surface  antireflection coating
• Further possibility: rough surface (texturing)
 slightly etching with an acid
 pyramidal structures in case of monocrystalline Si

 sin1   2  
2

R      n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
 sin1   2  
with

44
 Losses by transmission
• Long wavelength light is only weakly absorbed  penetration depth of
light with l1000 nm is in the range of the cell thickness of
150-200 m  transmission losses

• Texturing improves the situation because the incident light has a

longer way through the cell due to refraction angular downwards

• Further improvement by coating the backside with a reflecting material

(the normal Al – backcontact layer already reaches a reflection factor
of 80%) 45
 Electrical losses: Ohmic losses
• generated in the contact fingers  narrow and high contacts (buried)
• in the semiconductor due to the limited conductivity of the doped
material. In particular in the thin emitter high currents have to be brought
to the contacts  increasing of the doping close to the contacts helps
• in the metal-semiconductor junction: a potential step is generated
called Shottky barrier and reducing the cell voltage  extreme high
doping leads to a small space charge region.
The electrons can tunnel through this region

46
 Electrical losses: recombinatoric losses
• Was already discussed
• In addition: recombination at the surfaces
 Back side: highly doped
p+-range acts like a mirror
for the electrons
(back surface field, BSF)

 Front side:
- passivating oxide or antireflection layer for saturating dangling bonds
- n++.n+ layering keeps the holes apart from the contacts
47
 High efficiency cells
There are some examples of cells with particular high efficiency:
1. Buried-contact cell: efficiency of 17.5% is reached
developed in the middle 1980-ies by M. Green in Australia with
• Buried contacts
• n++-zone around the contacts for preventing the Schottky-contact
• p+-zone at the back side
• Texturing of front and back sides

48
 High efficiency cells
2. Point-contact cell: efficiency of 24% is reached
Developed at the Stanford University
• Both contacts on the backside of the cell  no shading effects
• Si of very high quality is used  diffusion length is high  electrons
can make it to the back side without recombination
• Front side is passivated  no recombination at the surface
• Between the contacts and the silicon is oxide (point contacts)
 surface effects are very small

49
 High efficiency cells
3. PERL cell: highest efficiency cell with efficiency of 25%
• Both contacts on the backside of the cell  no shading effects
• very regular texturing (inverted pyramids)
• Two topmost passivating layers consisting of oxide and silicon nitride
(antireflection-double-layer)

50
 Simplified High efficiency cell

• Many (100) process steps are necessary in the PERL-cell  a simplified cell
“Pluto” was developed on the PERL concept

51
 Sources
• http://www.cs.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/epslab/APSF/Lecture%20Notes/lecture-
4.pdf
• http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-hot-water/evacuated-tube-
collector.html
• https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-engineering/heat-tran
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Fh7dkTDTFE
• https://www.volker-quaschning.de/publis/regen/index.php
• https://www.volker-quaschning.de/publis/klimaschutz_e/index.php
• https://www.volker-quaschning.de/publis/regen_e/index.php
• https://www.lehrbuch-photovoltaik.de/
• https://www.wiley.com/en-
us/Photovoltaics%3A+Fundamentals%2C+Technology%2C+and+Practice
%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781119401339https://www.wiley.com/en-
us/Photovoltaics%3A+Fundamentals%2C+Technology%2C+and+Practice
%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781119401339
52