Online Class 5

Online class 5
ET 721/2
External photoeffect detector
In photoemission, a photon incident on a material surface can provide an electron with
sufficient energy to escape from the surface. The kinetic energy of the escaping electron is
given by
1 2
𝑚𝑣 ≤ ℎ𝜈 − Φ
2
R. Chattopadhyay ETC,IIEST 2
Negative Electron Affinity Detectors
Negative electron affinity (NEA) reduces the work function in semiconductors using band
bending through the effects of Schottky barriers. In the case of GaAs, negative electron
affinity is produced by applying monolayer quantities of caesium oxide to the surface of
heavily p-doped GaAs.
Characteristic parameters
• Responsivity: the best responsivity that an external photoeffect detector can deliver is 1
electron for each photon received. When the empirical quantum efficiency  is included,
the responsivity is given by
𝑞𝜂
𝑅 = ℎ𝜈
The quantum efficiency 𝜂 typically falls in the 0.01 → 0.3 range for photoemission
detectors. The discrepancy between the actual value of 𝜂 and unity arises from the
nondirectional nature of the excitation of the electron. Once excited by a photon, an electron
can move in almost any direction, not necessarily toward the surface. Many of the excited
electrons lose kinetic energy scattering off lattice ions before reaching the surface.
• Spectral Response: depends on the work function of the material, and, in the case of an
NEA device, the band-gap of the semiconductor. Choosing a large work function leads to a
detector that responds only to ultraviolet light. Using NEA devices based on narrow
bandgap semiconductors, detectors and cameras operating out to 1.8 m can be made.
Characteristic parameters
• Detectivity: depends on the background emission of electrons from the surface. Except at
T=0K, there is always sufficient thermal energy in a system to occasionally eject an
electron from the surface. The detector will have a current flowing even if all light is
completely blocked. This dark current is specified by the manufacturer for a given
detector. A very good external photoemission detector can have a dark current as low as 30
electrons/second. In such a detector, one would want signals of at least 30 photons per
second in order to distinguish the optical signal from the ever-present noise current.
• Time response: is limited by the time-of-flight of the electrons as they cross the gap, and
by capacitance. Vacuum photodiodes are usually designed with a relatively large gap
(several millimeters) between the anode and cathode in order to reduce internal
capacitance. To reduce speed limitations due to electron time-of-flight delays, large (on the
order of kilo-volt) potentials are used to accelerate the photo emitted electrons.
Commercial vacuum photodiodes can have sub-nanosecond response times.
Photoconductive detector
The electrical conductivity of certain semiconductors increases when the semiconductor is
exposed to light. A photon with sufficient energy can lift an electron from the valence band
to the conduction band, creating two free-charge carriers which alter the conductivity of the
material. Photoconductive detectors usually employ semiconductor materials with a
bandgap suited to the wavelength of the light that is being detected.
Photoconductive detector
An incident beam of light will generate new electron-hole pairs if the photons have
sufficient energy to excite the carriers across the bandgap, i.e., ℎ𝜈 > 𝐸𝑔 , or in terms of
wavelength
1.24 𝜇𝑚
𝜆 𝜇𝑚 = 𝐸𝑔 (𝑒𝑉)
Hence the instantaneous change in the number of carriers will be

Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑝 = #. 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 × 𝜂
Therefore the conductivity becomes
𝜎 = 𝑛 + Δ𝑛 𝑞𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝 + Δ𝑝 𝑞𝜇ℎ
Since Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑝, the change in conductivity becomes
𝜇𝑒
Δ𝜎 Δ𝑛 +1
𝜇ℎ
= 𝜇𝑒
𝜎 𝑛+𝑝
𝜇ℎ
Practical circuit
A change in current is detected via a load resistor in one case. The direct voltage across the
detector is monitored when driven with a constant current source in the second case.
Responsivity
let 𝑛 be the surface electron density in the conduction band
for a semiconductor of length 𝐿 and width 𝑤, and let Δ𝑛 be
the increase in surface carrier density due to absorbed
photons. The time evolution of the increase in electron density
becomes:
𝑑𝑛 𝜂𝑃 Δ𝑛
= ℎ𝜈𝑤𝐿 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
where the first term is obviously the generation rate, and the second term is the
recombination rate. Under steady-state conditions
𝜂𝑃𝜏
Δ𝑛 = ℎ𝜈𝑤𝐿
If a voltage V is applied across the detector, an electric field 𝐸 = 𝑉 𝑙 exists in the
semiconductor. Each electron will acquire a steady-state drift velocity
𝑣𝑛 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸
Responsivity
So the current becomes:
𝜂𝑞𝑃𝐺
𝑖 = −Δ𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑛 𝑤 = ℎ𝜈
Where G is the gain of the photoconductor given by
𝑣𝑛 𝜏 𝜇𝑛 𝜏𝑉
𝐺= =
𝑙 𝑙2
The gain is effectively the number of photo-induced electrons which flow through the circuit
for each photon received. Inspection of equation shows that the gain can be increased by
increasing 𝜏 and 𝑉, and by making 𝑙 as short as possible. However, as the gain increases, the
effective bandwidth of the detection process decreases: increased gain requires keeping the
electrons from recombining, which slows the response time of the detector.
pn Junction detector
A pn junction is formed by doping adjacent regions of a semiconductor with excess donors
and acceptors, respectively. In the absence of radiation or biasing, the Fermi levels on either
side of the pn junction will align.
The size of the band offset Φ is usually on the order of one half the bandgap energy. In the
presence of an applied potential, the offset changes according to
Φ = Φ0 − 𝑉𝑎
pn Junction detector
Because there is a static electric field present in the depletion region, any electron - hole pair
created there separates into two charges moving in opposite directions. The electron will
move toward the n-region, while the hole will be accelerated toward the p-region.
When an electron-hole pair is created well away from
the depletion zone, say in the p-doped region. The
two charges will randomly diffuse in the bulk
material. The electron will rapidly be annihilated by
one of the excess holes in the p-region, while the
newly created hole will join the sea of excess holes
already present. No net current will flow as a result of
this event unless the minority carrier survives long
enough to diffuse over to the junction (an unlikely
event). For optical detectors, it is desirable to have
photon absorption occur in the depletion region.
Speed of the detector
The speed of the detector is ultimately limited to how long it takes for the carriers to be
collected, and by capacitance. Assuming a depletion region of width 𝑊 and a drift velocity
of 𝑣𝑛 , the collection time of the detector is
𝑊
𝜏= 𝑣𝑛
Using thin depletion regions, it is possible to build detectors with response bandwidth up to
600Hz, however they take a beating on their quantum efficiency.
Usually, the bandwidth is limited by circuit properties of the detector, specifically the RC
time constants formed by the junction capacitance and amplifier impedance. The pn
junction, with an insulating depletion region separating the two conducting regions, acts like
a shunt to high frequency. The capacitance is easy to determine.
Let us consider a pn junction with n region doping concentration 𝑁𝑑 and in p region 𝑁𝑎
atoms per cm3.
So charge neutrality requires

𝑞𝑁𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑁𝑏 𝑏
Applying Gauss's law to the junction, the electric field starts at zero outside the depletion
region, and linearly increases to a peak value of
𝑞𝑁𝑎 𝑎 𝑞𝑁𝑏 𝑏
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑘=DC dielectric constant
𝜖0 𝑘 𝜖0 𝑘
The voltage drop across the junction can be calculated by integrating the electric field
distribution across the junction
𝑥>𝑏
−𝑉𝑎 + Φ = 𝑥<−𝑎
𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
If the dopant concentration is constant we get
For zero applied bias the junction potential becomes

𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
Φ0 = 𝑙𝑛 2
𝑞 𝑛𝑖
Where ni is the intrinsic carrier density.
Now the equation
𝑞
−𝑉𝑎 + Φ = 2𝜀 𝑁𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑁𝑏 𝑏
0𝜅
shows that for larger reverse bias (a+b) must increase because more charge must become
unshielded to compensate for the applied potential.
The width of the depletion region is given by 𝑊 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 where we have
2𝜅𝜀0 (−𝑉𝑎 +Φ0 ) 𝑁𝑑
𝑎= 𝑞 𝑁𝑎 (𝑁𝑎 +𝑁𝑑 )
2𝜅𝜀0 (−𝑉𝑎 +Φ0 ) 𝑁𝑎

𝑏=
𝑞 𝑁𝑑 (𝑁𝑎 +𝑁𝑑 )
The capacitance of the junction will be then

𝜅𝜀0 𝐴 𝑞𝜅𝜀0 𝑁𝑎 𝐴2
𝐶= 𝑊
= 2(−𝑉𝑎 +Φ0 )(1+𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 )
where A is the area of the junction.
QE of the detector
The quantum efficiency is determined by the amount of power absorbed in the depletion
region relative to the total power incident on the detector. Reflection at the surface reduces
the incident power by R, leaving (1-R)P0. If 𝛼𝑝 is the absorption coefficient in the p region
then the power reaching the depletion region is:
𝑃 𝑤𝑝 = 𝑃0 1 − 𝑅 𝑒 −𝛼𝑝 𝑤𝑝
𝑤𝑝 is the width of the depletion region in p side. The depletion region will absorb light,
depleting the power by 𝑒 −𝛼𝑤 . The fraction of power deposited into the depletion region is
then (1 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑤 ).
The quantum efficiency is then given by
𝜂 = (1 − 𝑅)𝑒 −𝛼𝑝 𝑤𝑝 1 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑤
Clearly, it is desirable to maximize the absorption in the depletion region, 1 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑤 and
minimize the reflection, R, and the absorption in the bulk region. These steps can be
accommodated by making 𝑤𝑝 as thin as possible, increasing w, and adding an antireflection
coating to the detector substrate.
Frequency response of pn junction detector
The three main mechanisms limiting the frequency response in photodiodes are:
1. The finite diffusion time of carriers produced in the p and n regions. Its effect can be
minimized by a proper choice of the length of the depletion layer.
2. The shunting effect of the signal current by the junction capacitance C. This places an
upper limit of
1
𝜔𝑚 ≅ 𝑅𝑒 𝐶
on the intensity modulation frequency, where Re is the equivalent resistance in parallel with
the capacitance C.
3. The finite transit time of the carriers drifting across the depletion layer.
To analyze the limitation due to transit time, we assume the slightly idealized case in which
the carriers are generated in a single plane and then drift the full width of the depletion layer
at a constant velocity v.
For high enough electric fields, the drift velocity of carriers in semiconductors tends to
saturate, so the constant-velocity assumption is not very far from reality even for a
nonuniform field distribution, provided the field exceeds its saturation value over most of the
depletion layer length.
Let the incident optical field is
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠 1 + 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ≡ 𝑅𝑒{𝑉 𝑡 }
Where
𝑉 𝑡 ≡ 𝐸𝑠 1 + 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Thus the amplitude of the incident field is modulated by a frequency 𝜔𝑚 /2𝜋.
The number of carrier generated in the pn junction is proportional to the average of 𝑒 2 𝑡
over a long time compared to the optical period 2𝜋/𝜔. So this average is equal to
1
𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 ∗ (𝑡).
2
So the generation rate becomes:
𝑚2 𝑚2
𝐺 𝑡 = 𝑎𝐸𝑠2 1+ + 2𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (1)
2 2
where a is a proportionality constant to be determined. Dropping the term involving
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 and using complex notation, we rewrite G(t) as:
𝑚2
𝐺 𝑡 = 𝑎𝐸𝑠2 1+ + 2𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (2)
2
The instantaneous current due to single carrier having drift velocity 𝑣 is
𝑒𝑣
𝑖= 𝑑
to the external circuit, where d is the width of the depletion layer.
The current due to carriers generated between t' and t' + dt' is
𝑒𝑣/𝑑𝐺 𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′
But each carrier spends a time 𝜏𝑑 = 𝑑 𝑣 in transit. Hence the instantaneous current at time t
is the sum of contributions of carriers generated between t and 𝑡 − 𝜏𝑑 . Therefore
𝑒𝑣 𝑡 ′ ′ 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝐸𝑠2 𝑡 𝑚2
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑 𝑡−𝜏𝑑
𝐺 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑 𝑡−𝜏𝑑
1+ 2
+ 2𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑚𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ (3)
Integrating eqn. (3) we get:
−𝑖𝜔𝑚𝜏𝑑
𝑚2 2 1−𝑒
𝑖 𝑡 = 1+ 𝑒𝑎𝐸𝑠2 + 2𝑚𝑒𝑎𝐸𝑠 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑚𝑡 (4)
2 𝑖𝜔𝑚 𝜏𝑑
The second term denotes the phase lag as well as reduction in signal current due to drift time
𝜏𝑑 .
If the drift time is short compared to the modulation period, so 𝜔𝑚 𝜏𝑑 ≪ 1, it has its
maximum value of unity, and the signal is maximum.
For modulation frequency m=0 each incident photon will create  carriers. Hence the DC
average current is:
𝑃𝑒𝜂
𝐼= ℎ𝜈
Hence we can write eqn. (4) as:
𝑚2 𝑃𝑒𝜂 𝑃𝑒𝜂 1−𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑚 𝜏𝑑
𝑖 𝑡 = 1+ + 2𝑚 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (5)
2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 𝑖𝜔𝑚 𝜏𝑑
Hence we get the frequency response of a pn junction detector as
pin diode
The acronym pin stands for p-intrinsic-n, which describes the structure of the detector. It is
difficult to increase the dimensions of the intrinsic region of a regular pn junction beyond 1
or 2 m. This small width limits the quantum efficiency and increases the capacitance. One
excellent fix to these problems is to artificially increase the size of the depletion region by
adding an intrinsic semiconductor between the doped region.
Noise in pn/pin
The noise in a pn-junction detector is primarily due to shot noise. There are two sources of
current in a pn junction, and each of these has two current components. The first source of
current comes from spontaneous generation via thermal excitation of an electron from the
valence to the conduction band.
The second mechanism for current is carrier diffusion.
Noise in pn/pin
In the low-occupation limit of the Fermi-Dirac statistics, the population follows a Boltzmann
distribution, 𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑛0 exp(− 𝐸 𝑘𝑇), where 𝑛0 is the electron density.
Thus, even with no applied field, there will be an electron injection current into the p side of
the junction. Similarly, there will be a hole injection current into the n side of the junction.
These currents are small, but finite. In equilibrium, these currents are compensated by equal
currents due to thermally generated carriers in the junction. Hence under zero external bias
conditions, the net current is zero.
The diffusion currents as a function of applied voltage are
𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑘𝑇
𝑖𝑝𝑑 = 𝑖𝑝𝑑0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑘𝑇
Where 𝑖𝑛𝑑0 and 𝑖𝑝𝑑0 are the diffusion currents at zero applied potential.
Noise in pn/pin
Hence the total current through the junction is
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 𝑖𝑝𝑑 − 𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑖𝑝𝑔 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑0 + 𝑖𝑝𝑑0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑘𝑇
− 𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑖𝑝𝑔
At 𝑉𝑎 = 0 we can write
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑘𝑇
−1
Where 𝐼𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑖𝑝𝑔 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑0 + 𝑖𝑝𝑑0
If the diode is strongly reverse biased, the current is −𝐼𝑠𝑎𝑡 . This forms the dark current
which leads to current shot noise.
The total shot noise, including that due to the photo-current, will be
Noise in pn/pin
Two dark current terms contribute to the shot noise. At zero bias, with no signal or
background light, the total shot noise is
𝑖𝑛2 = 4𝑞𝐼𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐵
where Isat is the measured dark current flowing through the detector. The additional factor of
2 compared to shot noise in a photodetector arises from the randomness of both current
sources.
Therefore in a reversed biased photodetector where forward current is negligible the power
SNR becomes
2
𝑆 𝜂𝑞𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔 ℎ𝜈
= 2𝑞 𝑖
𝑁 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 +𝜂𝑞 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔 +𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 ℎ𝜈 𝐵
If the diode is connected to a high impedance, a voltage will develop due to the charge
separation. Solving for this open circuit voltage V yields
𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝑞
𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝐼 𝐼𝑠
I-V characteristics of a pn junction
Avalanche photodiode
It is often advantageous to introduce gain
ahead of the preamplifier by using an optical
amplifier to boost the signal before
detection, or by using a detector with built-in
gain.
Presently the most popular option is to use
an avalanche photodiode (APD).
The magnification factor becomes
𝐼𝐴𝑃𝐷
𝑀=
𝐼𝑝ℎ
The responsivity becomes

𝑅𝐴𝑃𝐷 = 𝑀𝑅0
Noise in APD
Noise in the avalanche current multiplication process is a random process, with the
magnification factor M representing an average current gain. The number of secondary holes
and electrons generated by a photogenerated electron is a statistical process, depending on
the location of the photogenerated electron, the local field strength, and lattice vibrations.
The total noise associated with the APD current consists of a sum of the amplified shot
noise as well as this additional noise.
Under the assumption that the amplification process is constant, i.e., for every
photogenerated electron exactly M carriers were produced, then the shot noise due to this
process would be:
𝑖𝑛2 = 2 𝑀𝑞 𝑀𝑖𝑝ℎ 𝐵 = 2𝑀2 𝑞𝑖𝑝ℎ 𝐵
the total current is Miph, and it consists of charges with magnitude Mq.
Noise in APD
If the gain factor M was constant, then the total signal-to-noise ratio of the output current
would be:
2
𝑆 2
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑀2 𝑖𝑝ℎ 𝑖𝑝ℎ
= 2 = 2𝑀2 𝑞𝑖 = 2𝑞𝐵
𝑁 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ 𝐵
This is exactly the same as a pin detector would have delivered. The major difference is that
the output current of the APD is amplified by a factor of M, reducing the need for gain in
subsequent electronics.
In reality the gain M is not constant. Hence a noise factor, F, is introduced in the expression
for the shot noise
𝑖𝑛2 = 2𝑀2 𝑞𝑖𝑝ℎ 𝐵𝐹
The noise factor F depends on the bias voltage, the gain, and specific features of the
construction of the detector.

Online Class 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Online Class 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Online class 5

Hence the instantaneous change in the number of carriers will be

So charge neutrality requires

For zero applied bias the junction potential becomes

2𝜅𝜀0 (−𝑉𝑎 +Φ0 ) 𝑁𝑎

The capacitance of the junction will be then

The responsivity becomes

You might also like