Applied Photovoltaics Engineering

Table of Contents
• SEMICONDUCTORS
• Transport Mechanism
• Resistivity
• Hall Effect
• ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
• RECOMBINATION
• P-N JUNCTIONS
• Generation & Recombination
• Generation of charge carriers
• Generation rate
• Absorption coefficient
• Recombination of charge carriers
• Carrier lifetime
• Types of recombination
 Transport Mechanism
• There are two transport mechanisms
1) Drift.
2) Diffusion.

• The motion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) depends upon Electric field and carrier
concentration gradient.

• If the motion of charge carriers are due to the influence of an Electric Field (Ɛ) then it is known as
DRIFT.

• If the motion of charge carriers depends upon the carrier Concentration Gradient then it is known as
DIFFUSION.
 DRIFT
• Kinetic energy of an n-type semiconductor can be written as

Where,
mn is the effective mass of n-type SC.
Vth is the thermal velocity. ( 107 for Si and Ge )

• Due to Vth , electrons in the semiconductors moves rapidly in all directions.

• When Ɛ=0, there will be no net displacement and hence current is zero.
 DRIFT
• When a small electric field Ɛ is applied to the semiconductor sample, each electron will experience a
force –qƐ from the field and will be accelerated along the field (in the opposite direction to the field)
during the time between collisions. Therefore, an additional velocity component will be
superimposed upon the thermal motion of electrons. This additional component is called the Drift
Velocity (Vn ).

• Note that there is a net displacement of the electron in the direction opposite to the applied field.
 Drift
• When Ɛ≠0, an additional velocity component is superimposed on the thermal motion of electron called
Drift Velocity (Vn )

(momentum applied on an e-) (momentum gain)

• The transfer of carrier under the influence of an applied electric field produce a current calledDrift
Current.
where,
τc is Mean Free Time.
Motion of e- is opposite to Ɛ.
µn is the mobility of e- .
• .
 Mean Free Time (τc)
• Time between two collisions and it is limited by 2 processes.
1) Lattice Scattering .
2) Impurity Scattering.

Lattice Scattering:
Occurs due to the thermal vibration of lattice atoms.
τc ~ T –3/2 ~ µlattice
Impurity Scattering:
Occurs due to the collisions of impurities. # of impurities
τc ~ T 3/2/ Nt ~ µimpurity
 Mean Free Time (τc)
1/µeffective = 1/µlattice + 1/µimpurity

• For light doped sample ( 1014 cm-3) the lattice scattering dominates and mobility decreases as the temp
increases.

• For heavily doped sample ( 1019 cm-3) the impurity scattering dominates and mobility increases as the
temp increases.

• Problem
• Calculate the mean free time of an electron having a mobility of 1000 cm2/V-s at 300 K;
Assume mn =
0.26 m0 in these calculations.
 Resistivity
• Resistivity depends upon the material. conductivity
ρ = 1/σ
Special cases:
Case1: Intrinsic
SC

Case2: Extrinsic
SC
 Measuring Resistivity
• The most common method for measuring resistivity is the four point probe method.
1) The probes are equally spaced.
2) Current is passed from the outer two probes.
3) Voltage is measured from the inner two probes.
 Measuring Resistivity
• For a thin semiconductor sample with thickness W that is much smaller than the sample diameter d,
the resistivity is given by

• where CF is a well-documented "correction factor." The correction factor depends on the ratio of d/s,
where s is the probe spacing. When d/s > 20, the correction factor approaches 4.54.
 Hall Effect
• Elegant technique for
determining
1) Type of material (doping
type).
2) Carrier/doping
concentration.

• From the sign of Hall voltage, doping type can be determined.

• From the slope of hall voltage vs magnetic field the doping
concentration can be determined.
 Hall Effect
•Consider a p-type semiconductor. VH
The Lorentz force can be written as
WRHJp
F=
In equilibrium
BZ
Hall Field
W. = W.
VH =W.

Hall Voltage Hall Coefficient

VH = W RH Jp BZ
 Diffusion
• The charge carriers tends to move from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration. This current component is called DiffusionCurrent.

Jn = qDn dn/dx

diffusion coefficient or diffusivity

Similarly for p-type Semiconductor

Jp = - qDp dp/dx
 Einstein Relation
• It relates the two important constants ( diffusivity and
mobility) that characterize carrier transport by diffusion and
drift in a semiconductor.

Problem
• Assume that, in an n-type semiconductor at T = 300 K, the electron concentration varies linearly from
1 x 1018 to 7 x 1017 cm-3 over a distance of 0.1 cm. Calculate the diffusion current density if the
electron diffusion coefficient is Dn = 22.5 cm2/s.

• A sample of Si is doped with 1016 phosphorus atoms/cm3. Find the Hall voltage in a
sample with W = 500 μm, A = 2.5 x l0-3 cm2, I = 1 mA, and Bz = l0-4 Wb/cm2.

• Minority carriers (holes) are injected into a homogeneous n-type semiconductor sample at one
point. An electric field of 50 V/cm is applied across the sample, and the field moves these minority
carriers a distance of 1 cm in 100 μs. Find the drift velocity and the diffusivity of the minority carriers.
 Current Density Equations
• When E-field is present in addition to a concentration gradient, both drift and diffusion currentwill
flow.

Drift Diffusion
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
• When light falls onto semiconductor material,photons with energy
(Eph) less than the bandgap energy (Eg) interact only weakly with the
semiconductor, passing through it as if it were transparent.

• However, photons with energy greater than the bandgap energy (Eph >
Eg) interact with electrons in covalent bonds, using up their energy to
break bonds and create electron-hole pairs, which can then wander
off independently. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT

• Higher energy photons are absorbed closer to the

surface of the semiconductor than lower energy
photons, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7.
• The generation rate (G) of electron-hole (e-h)
pairs per unit volume can be calculated using the
formula:

• where N is the photon flux (photons per unit area

per second), α is the absorption coefficient, and x
is the distance from the surface.
• The value of α as a function of the wavelength of
light is illustrated in Fig. 2.8 for silicon at 300 K
RECOMBINATION

• When the light is switched off, the system must return to a state of equilibrium and the
electron-hole pairs generated by the light must disappear.

• With no external source of energy, the electrons and holes wander around until they
meet up and recombine.

• Any defects or impurities within or at the surface of the semiconductor promote

recombination.
RECOMBINATION
• The carrier lifetime of a material is defined as the average time for recombination to occur after
electron-hole generation. For silicon, this is typically 1 μs.

• Similarly, the carrier diffusion length is the average distance a carrier can move from point of
generation until it recombines.

• For silicon, this is typically 100–300 μm. These two parameters give an indication of material quality
and suitability for solar cell use.

• However, no power can be produced from a semiconductor without a means of giving

directionality to the moving electrons.

• Therefore, functional solar cells are typically produced from semiconductor material by the addition
of a rectifying p-n junction.
P-N JUNCTIONS

• A p-n junction is formed by joining n-type and p-type

semiconductor materials, as shown in Fig. 2.9.

• When joined, the excess holes in the p-type material flow by

diffusion to the n-type material, while electrons flow by diffusion
from the n-type material to the p-type material as a result of the
carrier concentration gradients across the junction.

• The electrons and holes leave behind exposed charges on dopant

atom sites, fixed in the crystal lattice.
P-N JUNCTIONS

• An electric field (E) therefore builds up in the

so-called depletion region around the
junction to stop the flow. Depending on the
materials used, a ‘builtin’ potential (Vbi)
owing to E will be formed.

• If a voltage is applied to the junction, as

shown in Fig. 2.10, E will be reduced.
P-N JUNCTIONS

• Once E is no longer large enough to stop the flow of electrons and holes, a current is
produced. The built in potential reduces to Vbi – V and the current flow increases
exponentially with the applied voltage. This phenomenon results in the Ideal Diode Law,
expressed as

• where I is the current, I0 is the dark saturation current (the diode leakage current density
in the absence of light), V is the applied voltage, q is the charge on an electron, k is
Boltzmann’s constant and T is absolute temperature.
P-N JUNCTIONS

Note that
• I0 increases as T increases.
• I0 decreases as material quality increases.

For actual diodes, the Eqn. becomes

• where n is the ideality factor, a number between

1 and 2 that typically increases as the current
decreases. The diode law is illustrated for silicon
in Fig. 2.11.
Generation & Recombination

• Under Steady State condition

Generation Rate = Recombination Rate (Both for intrinsic & extrinsic)

I n,drift = - (-q)nVnA = qnVnA

Motion of e- is in opposite direction to applied E-field due to charge of e-

Both negative sign cancels out each other indicating current due to drift flows in the
direction of E-field.
Generation & Recombination

I p,drift = + (+q)nVpA = qpVpA

Motion of e- is in opposite direction to applied E-field due to charge of e-

Constancy of Fermi Level

• The distance b/w EC & EF depends on electronconcentration.
• Thus, if there is a gradient of electron concentration the distance between EC & EF
varies along the length or distance.
• As EF is not related to gradient & remains constant so EC & EV would be varying
parameter (e.g. charge carriers moves from the region of higher concentration to
lower concentration).
Generation of Charge Carriers

• In the operating condition, semiconductor device is not in equilibrium as there is

(1) Flow of current
(2) Voltage applied across the terminals
(3) Application of light on the device.
• In the disturbed condition or non-equilibrium condition, the carrier concentration
changes in the device.
• The carrier concentration can be increased or decreased depending upon the process
happening in the device.
• For instance, when solar radiation falls on the surface of the solar cell, the electron hole
(e-h) pairs are generated, resulting in increased in their concentration.
Generation of Charge Carriers

• This creation of e-h pair is called Generation

• But there is always order restoring process which happens in the reverse direction than
that of generation, known as Recombination.

• Recombination is a process in which e-h pairs annihilated (or dies out).

• When light falls on a solar cell, some of it gets reflected, some of it gets transmitted &
some of it gets absorbed with in the solar cell.
Generation of Charge Carriers

• Photons after entering into the semiconductor interacts with the atoms.
• Only the photons having the energy more than or equal to the bandgap energy (hυ ≥ Eg)
can get absorbed in the material.
• The photons that are absorbed in the semiconductor material cause excitation of
electrons from the Valence band (VB) to Conduction band (CB), resulting in the
generation of e-h pairs.
• If Ephoton > Eg, the electron get excited to higher energy level than the CB edge (EC).
• The energy difference (Eph-Eg) is corresponding to Kinetic Energy (K.E) of electrons.
• Due to K.E, the electrons undergo several events of scattering & loose energy in the steps
and eventually electron comes down to Ev .
Rate of Generation

• As the light of energy, more than the Eg, travels in a semiconductor, it gets absorbed.
• The light intensity (I) reduces as it travels deeper in the material & can be written as
I = Io e-αx
Where;
• Io is the light intensity at the surface of the SC.
• α is called the absorption coefficient and it is the function of wavelength of light.
• X is the depth of the SC material.

• The equation shows that intensity of light decreases or reduces exponentially as it passes
through the SC.
Rate of Generation

• As absorption of light is related to the generation of carriers therefore the generation of

carriers along the depth of SC should also follow exponential relationship similar to
previous equation, and should be a function of distance and wavelength.

• If we assume that light is falling continuously then the rate of carrier generation can be
written as
GL = GL0 e-αx = dn/dx =dp/dx
Where;
GL0 is the generation rate at the surface of SC material.
Absorption Coefficient (α)

• How strongly a particular photon get absorbed in a material

• It is a material parameter and depends on the wavelength of light
• Its value is a determining parameter in deciding the thickness of the material required to
absorb most of the solar radiation.

Absorption Length (Lα):

• It is the inverse of absorption coefficient and it is defined as the maximum distance a
photon can travel in SC without absorption.
Lα = 1/α
Absorption Coefficient (α)

• α of direct bandgap SC materials is HIGH (>104 cm-1) for most of the λ of solar spectrum.
• High value of α represents high absorption possibility because it involves only a photon,
but no phonon for absorption to occur.
• High value of α implies that small thickness of SC material is required to capture relevant
range of photons (λ), therefor solar cell made from direct bandgap materials can be
thinner, thickness being in the range of a few microns.
• α of indirect bandgap material varies from high to low. The low value of α is due to the
requirement of photon and phonon for absorption to occur, (α ~ 104 cm-1) therefore large
thickness of material is required to capture the relevant light.
Absorption Coefficient (α)

• The generation of e-h pair in direct & indirect bandgap SC is called Band-to-Band
generation.

• Other processes (which are not dominant) that can give rise to carrier generation are
• Trap energy levels
• Auger excitation
Recombination of carriers

• In this process, the excited electrons fall back from conduction band (CB) to the valence
band (VB), reoccupying the empty energy state ( a hole) in the VB, thus e-h pair get
destroyed.

• It is therefore an equilibrium restoring process.

• It is not desirable in SC operation, and should be avoided as much as possible.

• The rate of recombination is one of the important solar cell efficiency limiting parameter.
Recombination of carriers

• Let the concentration of electrons and holes in equilibrium condition be n0 & p0. when
light falls on the solar cells, equilibrium is disturbed and non equilibrium concentrations
of electrons and holes are n & p. Therefore, excess carrier concentration of electrons and
holes under illumination, Δn & Δp, respectively can be written as;

Δn = n – n0
Δp = p – p0
Carrier Lifetime (τ)

• Generated carriers return to the ground state (recombination) after spending certain time in the
excited state.
• The average amount of time a carrier spends in the excited state before recombining is known as
lifetime of the carrier.
τn = Δn/R ; τp = Δp/R (R is the rate of recombination)
• Similar to diffusion coefficient & mobility, carrier lifetime is a material parameter.
• The carrier lifetime should be high or low recombination rate is desirable.
• A material can have high τ, if it has low structural defects and low undesirable impurity concentration.
• τ varies between ns to ms.
• Si with τ more than a few tens of μs is considered a good material for solar cell.
Types of Recombination

• All of the following can occur in parallel

(1) Band to Band Recombination:
• In this process excited electron falls back directlyfrom CB to VB & reoccupy the empty
state (hole). In the process it releases its energy in the form of a photon.
(2) Trap Assisted Recombination:
• Impurities & structural defects in a material give rise to energy levels within the bandgap.
• These energy levels, which are closed gto energy band edges (Ec & Ev) do not contribute
to the recombination of charges.
• But the energy levels which lie near the middle of the bandgap or mid-gap energy levels
are very effective & enhance the carrier recombination.
Types of Recombination

• Impurities such as Au, Fe & Mn act like a recombination centre in Si.

• The mid-gap energy levels are called Trap Levels & therefore this recombination
mechanism is called trap assisted recombination.
• An electron in the excited state jumps from the CB to mid-gap energy levels (gets
trapped); a further jump from the mid-gap energy level to the VB followed by
recombination with a hole completes the process. Since both the jumps ( CB to mid-gap
& mid-gap to VB) occurs in series, the effectiveness of this recombination process
requires equal probability of both the jumps. Probability of a given jump decreases as
the energy level difference increase. This in turn requires mid-energy levels to be in the
middle of the bandgap.
Types of Recombination

(3) Auger Recombination:

• It occurs at high level of carrier concentration (> 1017 cm-3).
• In this process, an electron recombining with the hole gives its energy to another electron in the
CB instead of giving it in the form of photon.
• The second electron, which receives the energy , goes into higher energy levels in the CB, having
higher Kinetic Energy (K.E)
• It can also happen in the VB, where recombining electron gives its energy to a hole in the VB
• In the Auger process, 3 particles take part in recombination
a) electron-electron-hole (CB electron gets excited)
b) Electron-hole-hole (VB holes gets excited)
Types of Recombination