General Physics 2

Lecture 7

➢ Electrostatics and electrodynamics

✓Electric current
✓ current and drift speed
✓ resistance and Ohm’s law
1
27.1 Electric Current

Whenever charges of like signs move in a given

direction, a current is said to exist.
Consider charges are moving perpendicularly to a
surface of area A.
Definition: the current is the rate at which charge
flows through this surface.

+ +
+
+
A +
I
2
27.1 Electric Current - Definition
Given an amount of charge, DQ, passing through the area A in a time
interval Dt, the current is the ratio of the charge to the time interval

+ +
DQ
I= +
Dt +
+
A
I

➢ If the rate at which charge flows varies in time, the current varies in
time; we define the instantaneous current I as the limit of the average
current as Dt → 0

3
27.1 Electric Current – Units and Remarks
The SI units of current is the ampere (A).
◼ 1 A = 1 C/s
◼ 1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of charge passing through the area
in a time interval of 1 s.
Currents may be carried by the motion of positive or
negative charges
It is conventional to give the current the same direction
as the flow of positive charge
In a metal conductor such as copper, the current is due to the
motion of the electrons (negatively charged).
◼ The direction of the current in copper is thus opposite the direction of
the electrons.

- -
- - v
4
I
27.1 Electric Current – Units and Remarks
In a beam of protons at a particle accelerator (such as RHIC at
Brookhaven national laboratory), the current is the same direction as
the motion of the protons.
In gases and electrolytes (e.g. Car batteries), the current is the flow of
both positive and negative charges.

It is common to refer to a moving charge as a mobile charge carrier.

In a metal the charge carriers are electrons.
In other conditions or materials, they may be positive or negative ions.
5
Example 1: Current in a light bulb

The amount of charge that passes through the filament of a

certain light bulb in 2.00 s is 1.67 C. Find.
(A) The current in the light bulb.
(B) The number of electrons that pass through the filament in 1 second.

6
Example 27.1: The amount of charge that passes through the
filament of a certain light bulb in 2.00 s is 1.67 C. Find.
(A) The current in the light bulb.
(B) The number of electrons that pass through the filament in 1 second.

DQ 1.67C
(A) The current in the light bulb I= = = 0.835 A
Dt 2.00 s
(B) The number of electrons that pass through the filament in 1 second

➢ In 1s, 0.835 C of charge passes the cross-sectional area of the filament

➢ This total charge per second is equal to the number of electrons, N, times the
charge on a single electron
➢ The amount of charge that passes through the filament of a certain light bulb in 2s
is 1.67C. So, the number of electrons that pass through the filament in 1 second.

( )
N q = N 1.60  10 −19 C / electron = 0.835C
0.835C
N=
1.60  10 −19 C / electron
N = 5.22  1018 electrons 7
27.2 Current and Drift Speed
Consider the current on a conductor of cross-sectional area A.

vd
q
A

vd Dt
Volume of an element of length Dx is : DV = A Dx.
Let n be the number of carriers per unit of volume.
The total number of carriers in DV is: n A Dx.
The charge in this volume is: DQ = (n A Dx)q.
Distance traveled at drift speed vd by carrier in time Dt:
Dx = vd Dt.
Hence: DQ = (n A vd Dt)q.
The current through the conductor:
I = DQ/ Dt = n A vd q. 8
27.2 Current and Drift Speed

• In an isolated conductor, charge carriers move randomly in all

directions.
• When an external potential is applied across the conductor, it creates
an electric field inside which produces a force on the electron.
• Electrons however still have quite a random path.
• As they travel through the material, electrons collide with other
electrons, and nuclei, thereby losing or gaining energy.
• The work done by the field exceeds the loss by collisions.
• The electrons then tend to drift preferentially in one direction.

9
27.2 Current and Drift Speed
Question:
A copper wire of cross-sectional area 3.00x10-6 m2 carries a
current of 10. A. Assuming that each copper atom contributes
one free electron to the metal, find the drift speed of the electron
in this wire. The density of copper is 8.95 g/cm3.

The molar mass and the density of copper to find the volume of 1 mole of copper

The electron density in copper

1 mol of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of atoms

The drift speed and substitute for the electron density

10
Question:
A copper wire of cross-sectional area 3.00x10-6 m2 carries a current of
10 A. Assuming that each copper atom contributes one free electron to
the metal, find the drift speed of the electron in this wire. The density of
copper is 8.95 g/cm3.
• A = 3.00x10-6 m2 I = 10 A.
• r = 8.95 g/cm3. q = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
• n = 6.02x1023 atom/mol x 8.95 g/cm3 x ( 63.5 g/mol)-1
• n = 8.48 x 1022 electrons/ cm3.

I 10.0C / s
vd = =
( )( )(
nqA 8.48  10 22 electrons m 3 1.6  10 −19 C 3.00  10 −6 m 2 )
= 2.46  10 −6 m / s

11
27.2 Current and Drift Speed - Comments

Drift speeds are usually very small.

Drift speed much smaller than the average speed between
collisions.
◼ Electrons traveling at 2.46x10-6 m/s would would take 68 min to travel
1m.
So why does light turn on so quickly when one flips a switch?
◼ The info travels at roughly 108 m/s, …

12
Quiz:
Consider a wire has a long conical shape. How does the
velocity of the electrons vary along the wire?

Every portion of the wire carries the same current: as the

cross sectional area decreases, the drift velocity must
increase to carry the same value of current. This is dues to
the electrical field lines being compressed into a smaller
area, thereby increasing the strength of the electric field.

13
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

When a voltage (potential difference) is applied across the

ends of a metallic conductor, the current is found to be
proportional to the applied voltage.
I  DV

DV

14
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
➢ A conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I. The current
density J in the conductor is defined as the current per unit area A

with

➢ A current density and an electric field are established in a conductor

whenever a potential difference is maintained across the conductor. So,
the current density is proportional to the electric field

The equation (1)

➢  the constant of proportionality s is called the conductivity of the conductor

➢ Materials that obey Equation (1) are said to follow Ohm’s law

15
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
A potential difference DV = Vb - Va is maintained across the
wire, creating in the wire an electric field and a current. If
the field is uniform, the magnitude of the potential
difference across the wire is related to the field:

The current density in the wire:

Figure 27.5 A uniform

conductor of length l and
cross-sectional area A

The quantity is called the resistance of the conductor

The resistance is defined as the ratio The Ohm’s Law

16
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law
Resistance in a conductor arises because of collisions between
electrons and fixed charges within the material.
In many materials, including most metals, the resistance is
constant over a wide range of applied voltages.
For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current
density to the electric field is a constant  that is independent of
the electric field producing the current

Georg Simon Ohm

(1787-1854)

17
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law DV = IR R understood to be independent of DV.
➢ Resistance has SI units of volts per ampere. One volt per ampere is
defined to be one ohm (V)

➢ The inverse of conductivity is resistivity r

where r has the units .m. Because R = l /A . we can express the resistance
of a uniform block of material along the length l , as

➢ Two common types are the composition resistor, which contains carbon,
and the wire-wound resistor, which consists of a coil of wire. Values of
resistors in ohms are normally indicated by color coding as shown in
Figure 27.6
V = IR
➢ The symbol for a resistor in circuit diagrams.
I +-
18
E
27.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
The four colors on the resistor at the bottom
of are yellow (= 4), violet (= 7), black (= 100),
and gold (= 5%),
→ R = 47x100 = 47  with a tolerance value
of 5% = 2
Figure 27.6 A close-up view of a
circuit board shows the color coding
on a resistor. The gold band on the
left tells us that the resistor is
oriented “backward” in this view and
we need to read the colors from
right to left.
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Table 27.2. Resistivities and
Temperature Coefficients of
Resistivity for Various Materials

Linear or Ohmic Material Non-Linear or Non-Ohmic Material

I I

DV DV
20
Most metals, ceramics Semiconductors e.g. diodes
Mini-quiz
Why do old light bulbs give less light than when
new?

21
Mini-quiz
Why do old light bulbs give less light than when
new?

Answer:
• The filament of a light bulb, made of tungsten, is kept at high
temperature when the light bulb is on.
• It tends to evaporate, I.e. to become thinner, thus decreasing in radius,
and cross sectional area.
• Its resistance increases with time.
• The current going though the filament then decreases with time – and
so does its luminosity.
• Tungsten atoms evaporate off the filament and end up on the inner surface
of the bulb.
• Over time, the glass becomes less transparent and therefore less
luminous.

22
 Example:
Resistance of a Steam Iron

All household electric devices are required to have a

specified resistance (as well as many other
characteristics…). Consider that the plate of a certain
steam iron states the iron carries a current of 7.40 A when
connected to a 120 V source. What is the resistance of the
steam iron?

23
 Example:
Resistance of a Steam Iron

All household electric devices are required to have a

specified resistance (as well as many other
characteristics…). Consider that the plate of a certain
steam iron states the iron carries a current of 7.40 A when
connected to a 120 V source. What is the resistance of the
steam iron?
DV 120V
R= = = 16.2
I 7.40 A
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Example 27.2. The Resistance of Nichrome Wire

The radius of Nichrome wire is 0.32 mm.

(A) Calculate the resistance per unit length of this wire.
(B) If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0 m length of
the Nichrome wire, what is the current in the wire?

25
Example 27.2. The Resistance of Nichrome Wire
The radius of Nichrome wire is 0.32 mm.
(A) Calculate the resistance per unit length of this wire.
(B) If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0 m length of the Nichrome wire,
what is the current in the wire?

(A) Calculate the resistance per unit length of this wire.

(B) If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0 m length of the Nichrome

wire, what is the current in the wire?

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 Example 27.3. The Radial Resistance of a Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are used extensively for cable television and other electronic
applications. A coaxial cable consists of two concentric cylindrical conductors. The
region between the conductors is completely filled with polyethylene plastic as
shown in Figure 27.8a. Current leakage through the plastic, in the radial direction, is
unwanted. (The cable is designed to conduct current along its length, but that is not
the current being considered here.) The radius of the inner conductor is a = 0.50 cm,
the radius of the outer conductor is b = 1.75 cm, and the length is L = 15.0 cm. The
resistivity of the plastic is 1.0 x 1013 .m. Calculate the resistance of the plastic
between the two conductors.

Figure 27.8 A coaxial cable

(a) Polyethylene plastic
fills the gap between the
two conductors.
(b) End view, showing current
leakage

27
 Example 27.3. The Radial Resistance of a Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are used extensively for cable television and other electronic applications. A coaxial cable
consists of two concentric cylindrical conductors. The region between the conductors is completely filled
with polyethylene plastic as shown in Figure 27.8a. Current leakage through the plastic, in the radial
direction, is unwanted. length is L = 15.0 cm. The resistivity of the plastic is 1.0 x 1013 .m. Calculate the
resistance of the plastic between the two conductors.

Let’s compare this resistance to that of the inner copper conductor of the cable along the
15.0-cm length?

➢ This resistance is 18 orders of magnitude smaller than the radial resistance.

➢ Therefore, almost all the current corresponds to charge moving along the length of the
cable, with a very small fraction leaking in the radial direction 28
27.4 Temperature Variation of Resistance - Intro

• The resistivity of a metal depends on many

(environmental) factors.
• The most important factor is the temperature.
• For most metals, the resistivity increases with increasing
temperature.
• The increased resistivity arises because of larger friction
caused by the more violent motion of the atoms of the
metal.

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 For most metals, resistivity increases
approx. linearly with temperature. r

r = ro 1 +  (T − To )  T
Metallic Conductor

• r is the resistivity at temperature T (measured in Celsius).

• ro is the reference resistivity at the reference temperature To
(usually taken to be 20 oC).
•  is a parameter called temperature coefficient of resistivity.

For a conductor with fixed cross section.

r

R = Ro 1 +  (T − To ) 
T
Superconductor
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Table 27.2. Resistivity of various materials
Material Resistivity (10-8 m) Material Resistivity (10-8 m)

Silver 1.61 Bismuth 106.8

Copper 1.70 Plutonium 141.4
Gold 2.20 Graphite 1375
Aluminum 2.65 Germanium 4.6x107

Pure 3.5 Diamond 2.7x109

Silicon
Calcium 3.91 Deionized 1.8x1013
water
Sodium 4.75 Iodine 1.3x1015
Tungsten 5.3 Phosphorus 1x1017
Brass 7.0 Quartz 1x1021
Uranium 30.0 Alumina 1x1022
Mercury 98.4 Sulfur 2x1023
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27.4 Temperature Variation of Resistance - Intro

Platinum Resistance Thermometer

A resistance thermometer, which measures temperature by
measuring the change in the resistance of a conductor, is
made of platinum and has a resistance of 50.0  at 20oC.
When the device is immersed in a vessel containing melting
indium, its resistance increases to 76.8 . Find the melting
point of Indium.

Using  = 3.92x10-3(oC)-1 from table 27.2.

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Platinum Resistance Thermometer
A resistance thermometer, which measures temperature by measuring the change
in the resistance of a conductor, is made of platinum and has a resistance of 50.0 
at 20oC. When the device is immersed in a vessel containing melting indium, its
resistance increases to 76.8 . Find the melting point of Indium.

Solution:
Using =3.92x10-3(oC)-1 from table 17.1.
Ro=50.0 .
To=20oC.
R=76.8 .

R − Ro 76.8 − 50.0
T − To = =
 Ro ( )
3.92  10 −3 o C −1  50.0 
 
= 137 o C
T = 157 C o

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Superconductivity
1911: H. K. Onnes, who had figured out how to
make liquid helium, used it to cool mercury to 4.2
K and looked at its resistance:

At low temperatures the resistance of some

metals→0, measured to be less than 10-16•ρconductor
(i.e., ρ<10-24 Ωm)!

– Current can flow, even if E=0.

– Current in superconducting rings can flow for years with no
decrease!

1957: Bardeen (UIUC!), Cooper, and Schrieffer (“BCS”) publish theoretical

explanation, for which they get the Nobel prize in 1972.

◼ It was Bardeen’s second Nobel prize (1956 – transistor)

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27.5. Electrical energy and power

In any circuit, battery is used to induce electrical current

◼ chemical energy of the battery is transformed into kinetic energy of
mobile charge carriers (electrical energy gain)
Any device that possesses resistance (resistor) present in
the circuit will transform electrical energy into heat
◼ kinetic energy of charge carriers is transformed into heat via
collisions with atoms in a conductor (electrical energy loss)

V = IR D
C

+ -
I
B A
35
Electrical energy

Consider circuit on the right in detail

AB: charge gains electrical energy
form the battery
C
DE = DQ  DV
B

(battery looses chemical energy) A D

CD: electrical energy lost (transferred
into heat)
Back to A: same potential energy
(zero) as before
Gained electrical energy = lost
electrical energy on the resistor

36
Power
Compute rate of energy loss (power dissipated on the
resistor)
DE DQ
P= = DV = I DV
Dt Dt
Use Ohm’s law

( DV )
2

P = I DV = I R =
2

Units of power: SI: watt

delivered energy: kilowatt-hours
(
1 kWh = 103W ) ( 3600 s ) = 3.60 10 6
J
37
Example
Power Transmission line

A high-voltage transmission line with resistance of 0.31 /km carries

1000A , starting at 700 kV, for a distance of 160 km. What is the power
loss due to resistance in the wire?

38
Example
Power Transmission line

A high-voltage transmission line with resistance of 0.31 /km carries 1000A ,

starting at 700 kV, for a distance of 160 km. What is the power loss due to
resistance in the wire?

Given:
Observations:
1. Given resistance/length, compute total resistance
V=700000 V
2. Given resistance and current, compute power loss
r=0.31 /km
L=160 km
I=1000 A
R = r L = ( 0.31  km )(160 km ) = 49.6 

Now compute power

Find:
P = I R = (1000 A ) ( 49.6  ) = 49.6 106 W
P=? 2 2

39
Mini-quiz

Why do the old light bulbs usually fail just after you turn
them on?

40
Mini-quiz

Why do the old light bulbs usually fail just after you turn
them on?

When the light bulb is off, its filament is cold, so its resistance is large.
Once the switch it thrown, current passes through the filament heating it
up, thus increasing the resistance,
R = Ro 1 +  (T − To ) 
This leads to decreased amount of power delivered to the light bulb, as

P = I 2R
Thus, there is a power spike just after the switch is thrown, which burns
the light bulb.

Resume: electrical devices are better be turned off if there is a power loss

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