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Thus far our treatment of electrical phenomena has been confined to the study of
charges in equilibrium situations, or electrostatics. We now consider situations involving
electric charges that are not in equilibrium. We use the term electric current, or simply
current, to describe the rate of flow of charge through some region of space. Most practical
applications of electricity deal with electric currents. For example, the battery in a flashlight
produces a current in the filament of the bulb when the switch is turned on. A variety of
home appliances operate on alternating current. In these common situations, current exists
in a conductor, such as a copper wire. It also is possible forcurrents to exist outside a
conductor. For instance, a beam of electrons in a television picture tube constitutes a
current
This chapter begins with the definition of current. A microscopic description of
current is given, and some of the factors that contribute to the opposition to the flow of
charge in conductors are discussed. A classical model is used to describe electrical
conduction in metals, and some of the limitations of this model are cited. We also define
electrical resistance and introduce a new circuit element, the resistor. We conclude by
discussing the rate at which energy is transferred to a device in an electric circuit.
24.1 Electric Current And Current Density
Whenever electric charges move, a current is said to exist. To define current more
precisely, consider a surface of area A through which charges are moving as in figure 24.1.
The current is the rate at which charge flows through this surface. If ΔQ is the amount of
charge that passes through this area in a time interval Δt , the average current I is equal to
the charge that passes through A per unit time:
ΔQ
I= (24 . 1)
Δt
Figure 24.1 Charges in motion through an area A. The time rate of flow of charge through
the area is defined as the current I. The direction of the current is in the direction of the
current is in the direction of flow of positive charges
If the rate at which charge flows varies in time, then the current varies in time; we
define the instantaneous current I as the differential limit of average current:
dQ
I= ( 24 . 2 )
dt
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A),where:
C
1 A=
s
That is, 1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of charge passing through the surface area in 1s.
−3
In practice, smaller units of current are often used, such as the milliampere (1 mA= 10
−6
A) and the microampere ( 1μA=10 A ).
The charges passing through the surface in Figure 24.1 can be positive or negative,
or both. It is conventional to choose the direction of the current to be in the direction as the
flow of positive charge. In electrical conductors, such as copper or aluminum, the current is
due to the motion of negatively charged electrons. Therefore, when we speak of current in
an ordinary conductor, the direction of the current is opposite the direction of flow of
electrons. However, if we are considering a beam of positively charged protons in an
accelerator, the current is in the direction of motion of the protons. In some cases such as
those involving gases and electrolytes, for instance the current is the result of the flow of
both positive and negative charges. This occurs, for example, in semiconductors, as
discussed in section 24.6. it is common to refer to a moving charge (whether it is positive or
negative) as a mobile charge carrier. For example, the charge carriers in a metal are
electrons.
Figure 24.2 A section of a uniform conductor of cross-sectional area A. The mobile charge
carriers move with a speed vd, and the displacement they experience in the x direction in a
time interval Δt is
Δx=v d Δt . If we choose Δt to be the time interval during which
the charges are displaced, on the average, by the length of the cylinder, the number of
A (Fig. 24.2). The volume of a section of the conductor of length Δx (the gray region
shown in Fig. 24.2) is A Δx . If n represents the number of mobile charge carriers per unit
volume, then the number of mobile charge carrierss in the volume element is give by nA
The velocity of the charge carriers vd is an average velocity called the drift velocity.
To understand the meaning of drift speed, consider a conductor in which the charge carriers
are free electrons. If the conductor is isolated that is, the potential difference across it is zero
then these electrons undergo random motion that is analogous to the motion of gas
molecules. As we discussed earlier, when a potential difference is applied across the
conductor (for example, by means of a battery), an electric field is set up in the conductor;
this field exerts an electric force on the electrons, producing a current. However, the
electrons do not move in straight lines along the conductor. Instead, they collide repeatedly
with the metal atoms, and their resultant motion is complicated and zigzag motion (Fig.
24.3). Despite the collisions, the electrons move slowly along the conductor (in a direction
opposite that of E) at the drift velocity vd. As we shall see in an example that follows, drift
velocities are much smaller than the average speed between collisions. We shall discuss this
model in more detail in section 24.3 . One can think of the collisions of the electrons within
a conductor as being an effective internal friction (or drag force), similar to that experienced
by the molecules of a liquid flowing through a pipe sruffed with steel wool
We can think of the atom–electron collisions in a conductor as an effective internal
friction (or drag force) similar to that experienced by the molecules of a liquid flowing
through a pipe stuffed with steel wool. The energy transferred from the electrons to the
metal atoms during collisions causes an increase in the vibrational energy of the atoms and a
corresponding increase in the temperature of the conductor.
Example 24.1
The 12-gauge copper wire in a typical residential building has a cross-
sectional area of 3.31 x 10-6 m2. If it carries a current of 10.0 A, what is
the drift speed of the electrons? Assume that each copper atom
contributes one free electron to the current. The density of copper is
8.95 g/cm3.
Solution
From the periodic table of the elements in Appendix C, we find that the
molar mass of copper is 63.5 g/mol. Recall that 1 mol of any substance
contains Avogadro’s number of atoms (6.02 x 10 23). Knowing the
density of copper, we can calculate the volume occupied by 63.5 g (=1
mol) of copper:
m 63 .5 g
V= = =7 . 09 cm3
ρ g
8 . 95
cm3
Because each copper atom contributes one free electron to the current,
we have
( 6 . 62 x 1023 electron ) 1 . 00 x 106 cm 3 electron
n=
7 . 09 cm 3 ( 1m 3 )
=8 . 49 x 1028
m3
where q is the absolute value of the charge on each electron. Thus,
c
10
1 s
vd = =
nqA ( 8 . 49 x 10 28 m−3 )( 1 . 60 x 10−19 C ) ( 3 .31 x 10−6 m 2 )
m
=2 .22 x 10−4
s
Resistance and ohm’s Law
Charges move in a conductor to produce a current under the action of an electric
field inside the conductor. An electric field can exist in the conductor in this case since we
are dealing with charges in motion, a nonelectrostatic situation. This in contrast with the
situation in which a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium (where the charges are a rest) can
have no electric field inside.
Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I. The current
density J in the conductor is defined as the current per unit area. Because the current
Materials that obey Ohm’s law and hence demonstrate this simple relationship between E
and J are said to be ohmic. Experimentally, however, it is found that not all materials have
this property. Materials and devices that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to be nonohmic.
Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law of nature but rather an empirical relationship valid only
for certain materials.
difference
v b −v a maintained across the conductor sets up an electric field E,
and this field produces a current I that is proportional to the potential difference.
A form of ohm’s law that is more directly useful in practical applications can be
obtained by considering a segment of a straight wire of cross-sectional area A and length
1
ρ≡ resistivity
σ
l
R=
where ρ has the units ohm-meters (Ωm) . Because σ A , we can express
(A)Calculate the resistance per unit length of a 22-gauge Nichrome wire, which has a
radius of 0.321 mm.
Solution The cross-sectional area of this wire is
2
A=π r 2 =π ( 0 .321 x 10−3 m) =3 . 24 x 10−7 m2
−6
The resistivity of Nichrome is 1.5 x10 Ωm (see Table 24.1). Thus, we can use
Equation 24.10 to find the resistance per unit length:
R ρ 1 .5 x 10−6 Ωm
= = =4 . 63 Ω
l A 3 .24 x 10−7 m2 m
(B) If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0-m length of the
Nichrome wire, what is the current in the wire?
Solution Because a 1.0-m length of this wire has a resistance
of 4.63 Ω Equation 24.8 gives
V 10 V
I= = =2 . 16 A
R 4 .63 Ω
C. calculate the current density and electric field in the wire assuming that the current
it carries is 26.16 A.
I 2 . 16 A A
J= = =6 . 67 x 10 6 2
A 3 .24 x 10 m
−7 2
m
1
σ=
Since J =σE and ρ the electric field in the wire is give by
J
E= = ρJ
σ
A N
(
E=( 1. 5 x 10−6 Ωm ) 6 .67 x 106
m 2)=10 . 0
C
Note the copper hasa resistivity of 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm ,about 10-2 that of nichrome.
Therefore a copper wire of the same gaughe would have a resistance per unit length
Ω
of only 0.05 m . A1-m length of such copper wire would carry the same
current (2.16 A) with an applied voltage of only 0.11 V.
24.3The Resistivity of different conductors
temperature coefficient of resistivity. From Equation 24.11, we see that the temperature
coefficient of resistivity can be expressed as
1 Δp
α=
ρ0 ΔT
where
Δρ=ρ− ρ0 is the change in resistivity in the temperature interval ΔT=T −T 0
The temperature coefficients of resistivity for various materials are given in Table 24.1.
Note that the unit for α is degrees Celsius-1 [(°C)-1]. Because resistance is proportional to
resistivity (Eq. 24.10), we can write the variation of resistance as
R=R 0 [ 1+α ( T −T a ) ] ( 24 .13 )
Example 24.3 A Platinum Resistance Thermometer
A resistance thermometer, which measures temperature by measuring
the change in resistance of a conductor, is made from platinum and has a
resistance of 50.0 Ω at 20.0°C. When immersed in a vessel containing
melting indium, its resistance increases to 80.7 Ω . Calculate the melting
−3 0 −1
point of the indium. Note that α=3. 92 x10 ( C ) for platinum.
Since
ΔT=T −T 0 and T 0=20 0 C , we find that T=1570C
finite value
ρ0 .
Notice that three of the α values in Table 24.1 are negative; this indicates that the
resistivity of these materials decreases with increasing temperature (Fig. 24.7), which is
indicative of a class of materials called semiconductors. This behavior is due to an increase
in the density of charge carriers at higher temperatures.
Because the charge carriers in a semiconductor are often associated with impurity
atoms, the resistivity of these materials is very sensitive to the type and concentration of
such impurities.
battery, the electric potential energy of the system increases by an amount Q ΔV while
the chemical potential energy in the battery decreases by the same amount. However, as the
charge moves from c to d through the resistor, the system loses this electric potential energy
during collisions of electrons with atoms in the resistor. In this process, the energy is
transformed to internal energy corresponding to increased vibrational motion of the atoms in
the resistor. Because we
have neglected the resistance of the interconnecting wires, no energy transformation occurs
for paths bc and da. When the charge returns to point a, the net result is that some of the
chemical energy in the battery has been delivered to the resistor and resides in the resistor as
internal energy associated with molecular vibration.
The resistor is normally in contact with air, so its increased temperature will result in a
transfer of energy by heat into the air. In addition, the resistor emits thermal radiation,
representing another means of escape for the energy. After some time interval has passed,
the resistor reaches a constant temperature, at which time the input of energy from the
battery is balanced by the output of energy by heat and radiation. Some electrical devices
include heat sinks4 connected to parts of the circuit to prevent these parts from reaching
dangerously high temperatures. These are pieces of metal with many fins. The high thermal
conductivity of the metal provides a rapid transfer of energy by heat away from the hot
component, while the large number of fins provides a large surface area in contact with the
air, so that energy can transfer by radiation and into the air by heat at a high rate.
Let us consider now the rate at which the system loses electric potential energy as the
device carrying a current I and having a potential difference ΔV between its terminals.
Using Equation 24.14 and the fact that ΔV =IR for a resistor, we can express the power
delivered to the resistor in the alternative forms
V2
P=I 2 R= (24 .15 ) power loss in a conductor
R
A battery any other device that provides electrical energy is called a seat of
electromotive force, usually referred to as emf. (the phrase electromotive force is an
unfortunate one, since it does not really describe a force but actually refers to a potential
diference between in volts). Neglecting the internal resistance of the battery, the potential
difference between points a and b is equal to the emf ε of the battery. That is,
V ε
V =V b −V a =ε ,and the current in the circuit is given by I= =
R R . Since equals
2
the power lost in the resistor I R .
Example 24.4
An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential
difference of 110 V to a Nichrome wire that has a total resistance
of 8.00 Ω . Find the current carried by the wire
and the power rating of the heater.
V 110 V
I= = =13 .8 A
R 8Ω
2
We can find the power rating using P=I R
2
P=I 2 R= (13 . 8 A ) ( 8 Ω )=158 kW
Figure 24.11 (a) A schematic diagram of the random motion of two charge carriers in a
conductor in the absence of an electric field. The drift velocity is zero. (b) The motion of the
charge carriers in a conductor in the presence of an electric field. Note that the random
motion is modified by the field, and the charge carriers
have a drift velocity.
values of
v 0 . If we assume that the initial velocities are randomly distributed over all
qE
|v|= t (24 . 16 )
m
If the average time between collisions is τ , then drift velocity, we have
qE
vd = τ (24 .17 )
m
We can relate this expression for drift velocity to the current in the conductor. Substituting
Equation 24.17 into Equation 24.6, we find that the magnitude of the current density is
nq 2 E
J =nqv d = τ (24 . 18) current density
m
where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume. Comparing this expression with
Ohm’s law, J =τ E ,we obtain the following relationships for conductivity and
resistivity of a conductor
nq 2 τ
σ= (24 . 19) conductivity
m
1 m
ρ= = 2 (24 . 20) restivity
σ nq τ
The average time interval τ between collisions is related to the average distance between
collisions l (that is, the mean free path) and the average v speed through the
expression
1
τ= (24.21)
v
Example 24.6
(A) Using
According theclassical
to this data andmodel,
resultsconductivity
from Example 24.1 and the
and resistivity classical
do not dependmodel
on theofstrength
of theelectron
electricconduction, estimate
field. This feature the average time
is characteristic of a interval
conductor between
obeyingcollisions for
Ohm’s law.
electrons in household copper wiring 200C.
Solution From Equation 24.20, we see that
m
τ=
nq 2 ρ
−8
Where ρ=1 .7x 10 Ωm (m for copper and the carrier density is
electrons
n=18. 84 x 1028
m3 for the wire described in Example 27.1.
Substitution of these values into the expression above gives
( 9. 11 x 10−31 kg )
τ= =2. 5 x 10−14 s
28 −3 -19 2 −8
( 8. 48 x 10 m )( 1. 6x10 C ) ( 1 .7 x 10 Ωm )
(B) Assuming that the average speed for free electrons in copper is 1.6 x10 6 m/s
and using the result from part (A),calculate the mean free path for electrons in
copper
m
(
l= vr= 1. 6 x 10 6
s ) ( 2 .5 x 10 −14
s ) =4 .0 x 10−8 m