Current Electricity

Chapter-2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur naturally in many situations.
Lightning is one such phenomenon in which charges flow from the clouds to the earth through the
atmosphere, sometimes with disastrous results. The flow of charges in lightning is not steady, but in
our everyday life we see many devices where charges flow in a steady manner, like water flowing
smoothly in a river. A torch and a cell-driven clock are examples of such devices. In the present
chapter, we shall study some of the basic laws concerning steady electric currents.
2.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT
The motion of the free electrons along the wire has no net direction. When the ends of the conduct-
ing wire are subjected to a potential difference, an electric field is produced and the electrons are
directed opposite to the applied electric field, E. In this situation we say that electric current ‘i’ is
established.
If a net charge ‘q’ passes through any cross section of the conducting wire in time ‘t’, the electric
current will be
q
i ...(i)
t
If the rate of flow of charge with time is not constant, i.e. the current varies with respect to time,
then current wil be
dq
i ...(ii)
dt
In metals, current carriers are electrons while in the electrolytes or in gases the current carriers are
the positive and negative ions or positive ions and electrons, respectively.
As a convention, if the charge carriers are negative, they will move opposite to the direction of
conventional current, which is in the direction of applied electric field.
Fig. 2.1 Charge carriers (electrons) move in the direction opposite to that of electric field
In the above figure we can see that electrons (negative charge) are moving from left to right with
velocity v , while electric field is directed from right to left.
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C) and that of time is second (s). Hence from equation (i), the
C 1 
electric current is measured in coulomb second–1  or Cs  also known as ampere. Ampere is
 s 
defined as the current flowing through a wire when a charge of one coulomb passes through it for
one second.
[47]
Current Electricity (CBSE)
2.3 CURRENT DENSITY

Magnitude of current density for a uniformly distributed conductor of cross sectional area ‘A’ can
be given by
i
j
A
where ‘j’ is a vector oriented in the direction of a motion of positive charge carrier at a point. At this
point the electron would move in the direction of ‘–j’. Thus current density is the current per unit
area. Now we consider a surface in a conductor. If ‘i’ is the flux of j over that surface, then it can
be given as
i   j ds
SI unit of current density is A m–2. Current density is a vector quantity.

2.4 DRIFT VELOCITY (vd)
When an electric field E is applied, the electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to the
applied electric field for a small time , as these electrons are deflected or scattered in a wide range
of directions due to the action of random forces.
Force eE
Acceleration a  
mass m
 eE 
Also, vd  a    
m
This small velocity imposed on the random motion of electrons in a conductor on application of
electric field is referred to as drift velocity. Thus drift velocity may be defined as that velocity with
which a free electron, in addition to its random motion, gets drifted through the body of conductor
under the influence of external field. It is the drift of electrons, which constitutes electric current. If
there are ‘n’ conduction electrons in a unit volume. Then there will be charge of magnitude
q = nAle
where Al is the volume of wire. Now, the current ‘i’ is given by
q nAle
i 
t 1
vd
 Distance 1 
Since, Time  Speed  v 
 d 
or current i = nAevd
We know that
i nAevd
Current density j    nevd
A A
j
So drift velocity, vd 
ne
MC SQUARE ACADEMY, 1/107 Old Rajinder nagar New Delhi – 110060, Ph: 8130030691, 9899662803
P – [48]
(CBSE) Current Electricity
Example: 2.1
The number density of conduction electrons in a copper conductor estimated is 8.5 × 1928 m–3. How
long does an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end ? The area of cross-
section of the wire is 2.0 × 10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.
Solution :
Here, n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
l = 3.0 m; A = 2.0 × 10–6 m2;
I = 3.0 A, t = ?
I
As, I = n A e vd,  vd  ,
nAe
l l n Ae
Now, t 
vd I
3.0  8.5  1028  2.0  106  1.6  10 19

 t = 2.72 × 104 s = 7.5 hours.
3.0
2.5 OHM’S LAW

It is the most fundamental law of electricity and was given by George Simon Ohm in 1828.
It states that the amount of current flowing in a circuit made up of pure resistances is directly
proportional to the electromotive forces impressed on the circuit and inversely proportional to the
total resistance of the circuit. Graphical representation of Ohm’s law is shown below.
Fig. 2.2. Graph between voltage and current
P – [49]
In other words, if the physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strain, etc.) remain unchanged,
then the current flowing through a conductor is always directly proportional to the potential differ-
ence across its two ends. Mathematically,
IV
or V = RI where the constant of proportionality R is called the ohmic electrical resistance or simply
resistance of the conductor. Its value depends upon the nature of conductor, its dimensions and the
physical conditions. It is independent of the values of V and I.
2.5.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law is not fundamental law of nature. In many cases, the relation V = IR is not
strictly obeyed and they lead to the failure of Ohm’s law. The conductors that do not obey
Ohm’s law are known as non-ohmic conductors. For instance, vacuum tubes, semiconduc-
tors, diodes, transistors etc. A few cases are as explained below:
(i) Current may vary non-linearly with potential difference. For a metallic conductor,
graph between V and I is expected to be a straight line. However, the graph does not
remain so when the current is continuously increased through the conductor. The
reason is that as current is increased, the conductor becomes hotter and its resistance
increases. Dotted straight line represents the theoretical curve while thick curve
represents the actual V–I graph for a metallic conductor.
Fig. 2.3. V - I graph of metallic conductor
(ii) Variation of current with potential difference may depend upon the sign of the poten-
tial difference applied. For a semiconductor diode or pn junction, the variation of cur-
rent is different, when the sign of the potential difference applied across the diode is
changed. When the positive terminal of battery is connected to p-section and negative
terminal to n-section (forward bias), the variation of current with potential difference
is much more rapid than what it is when applied in opposite manner (reverse bias). It
is as shown below:
Fig. 2.4. Variation of current in semiconductor diode
(iii) It may be noted that in case of a semiconductor, the variation of current with potential
difference is non-linear in addition to the fact that magnitude of the variation depends
up on the potential difference applied across it.
P – [50]
The current may decreases on increasing the potential difference. A thyristor consists
of four alternate layers of p and n type semiconductors. The V-I graph (both for
forward and reverse bias) of a thyristor is of the type as shown below.
Fig. 2.5. Variation of current in thyristor
The portion PQ shows that current increases on decreasing the potential difference.
It may be noted in addition to the fact that current increases with decrease in potential
difference for a thyristor the current varies non-linearly with potential difference and
also the magnitude of the variation of current depends upon the sign of the potential
difference applied across it
2.6 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR

Resistance is the characteristics of the conducting wire material that can be defined as the ratio
of potential difference across the two ends of the wire to the current carried by the wire.
V
Mathematically, R 
I
When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, an electric field is set up across its two
ends. Due to this, free electrons get accelerated. As the electrons move, they collide with the atoms
(which in turn depend upon the arrangement of atoms in the conducting material as well as on the
length and thickness of conducting wire) and their motion is thus opposed. The opposition offered by
the atoms as a result of which the electrons are slowed down is referred to as resistance. Symbol of
resistance is shown below.
Fig. 2.6. Symbol of resistance
If potential difference is measured in volts and the current is measured in amperes, then the resis-
tance will be volt per ampere, which is called ohm and is represented by .
1 volt (V )
Thus, 1 ohm()   1 VA 1
1 ampere ( A)
2.6.1 Factors on which resistance depends
Resistance of conductor depends on various following factors, which can be used to de-
duce a mathematical formula for it.
Length: The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to the length (l) of the
conductor. For example, resistance of the conductor is doubled when the length of the
conductor is doubled. Therefore, R  l.
P – [51]
Area of cross section: The resistance (R) of a conductor is inversely proportional to area
(A) of the conductor, i.e. the resistance of the conductor becomes half if the cross sectional
l
area is doubled. Therefore, R  .
A
Nature of material and temperature of the conductor: The resistance of the conduc-
tor also depends upon the nature of material and temperature of the conductor.
l
Using above mentioned concepts, R  .
A
l 
or R    
 A
where  is the constant and is known as the specific resistance or electrical resistivity of
the material of conductor. Specific resistance (electrical resistivity) of the material of the
conductor is defined as the resistance of unit length and unit area of cross section of
conductor, i.e. it is also the resistance of unit cube of a material of a conductor. Where unit
cube implies the cube having side of unit length. From equation (i)
 A
  R 
l 
m2
Therefore, the unit of resistivity or specific resistivity  ohm   ohm  m or -m
m
Dimensional formula of resistance = [M1 L2 T–3 A–2]
Example: 2.2
A wire of resistance 5  is drawn out so that its length is increased to twice its original length. Calculate
its new resistance and resistivity.
Solution :
Here, R1 = 5, l1 = l, say;
A1 = A say; R1 = ?, l2 = 2l, A2 = ?
As volume of the wire remains the same
 A1l1 = A2l2
A1l1 A  l A
or A2   
l2 2l 2
As specific resistance of the wire remains the same,
l1
 R1  
A1
l2
and R2   A
2
R2 l2 A1 2l A
Hence,     4
R1 A2 l1 ( A / 2) l
or R2 = 4R1 = 4 × 5 = 20 
Resistivity of the wire remains unchanged as it does not change with change in dimensions of a material
without change in its temperature.
P – [52]
Example: 2.3
Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper have the same resistance. Which
of the two wires is lighter ? Hence explain why aluminium wires are preferred for overhead power cables.
Given,
For Al, 1 = 2.63 × 10–8  m
For Cu, 2 = 1.72 × 10–8 m
Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.
Solution :
Given, for aluminium wire;
R1 = R; l1 = l; Relative density d1 = 2.7
For copper wire, R2 = R, l2 = l; d2 = 8.9
Let A1, A2 be the area of cross section for aluminium wire and copper wire.
l1 2.63  108  l
We know, R1  1  ... (i)
A1 A1
and mass of the aluminiu wire,
m1 = A1l1 × d1 = A1 l × 2.7 ... (ii)
l2 1.72  108  l
Also, R2  2  ... (iii)
A2 A2
Mass of copper wire,
m2 = A2l2 × d2 = A2l × 8.9 ... (iv)
Since two wires are of equal resistance
R1 = R2
2.63  108  l 1.72  108  l

A1 A2
A2 1.72
or  ... (v)
A1 2.63
From (ii) and (iv), we have
m2 A2 l  8.9 8.9 A2 8.9 1.72
     2.16
m1 A1l  2.7 2.7 A1 = 2.7 2.63 ... [from (v)]
It shows that copper wire is 2.16 times heavier than aluminium wire. Since for the same value of
length and resistance, aluminium wire has lesser mass than copper wire, therefore aluminium wire is prefered
for overhead power cables. A heavy cable may sag down owing to its own weight.
2.6.2 Temperature dependence of resistance

m l
It is known to us that resistance of a metallic conductor is R  .
ne 2  A
1
For a given conductor, resistance R  . If the temperature of conductor is increased, the

ions/atoms of metal vibrate with greater amplitude and greater frequencies about their
mean positions. Owing to increase in thermal energy, the frequency of collision of free
electrons with atoms/ions while drifting towards positive end of the metal also increases. It
reduces relaxation time. Hence in turn, the value of resistance increases with rise in tem-
perature. The resistance Rt of a metal conductor at temperature tºC is
P – [53]
Rt = R0 (1 + t + t2)
where  and  are the temperature coefficients of resistance and R0 is the resistance of
conductor at 0ºC.
For moderate range of temperature tºC, the resistance R of a conductor is given by
R = R0 (1 + t)
Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance for the material which depends upon
the nature of material. From the above expression,
( R  R0 )

R0 t
Thus temperature coefficient of a resistance is defined as the change in resistance per unit
resistance at 0ºC per degree rise in temperature.
For metals, the value of  is positive as resistance of a metal increases with rise in tem-
perature.
The unit of  is K–1 or ºC–1. For insulators and semiconductors, the value of  is negative
that is the resistance decreases with rise in temperature. For alloys like manganin, eureka
and constantan,  is very small as compared to metals. Due to high resistivity and low
temperature coefficient of resistance, these alloys are used in making standard resistance
coil. The value of temperature coefficient of resistance varies with temperature.
Temperature coefficient of resistance averaged over the temperature range t1 ºC to t2 ºC is
R2  R1

R1 (t2  t1 )
2.6.3 Variation of resistivity with temperature
m
Resistivity of metal is  
ne 2 
The above equation shows that the resistivity of material depends upon two parameters of
the material, namely, number of electrons per unit volume and the average relaxation time.
(i) Metals: In most metals, the number density of free electrons does not vary with tem-
perature but an increase in temperature increases the amplitude of vibration of lattice
ions of the metal. As a result, the collision of free electrons with ions while drifting
towards positive end of the conductor becomes more frequent and in turn, reduces the
relaxation time. Thus, resistivity of conductor increases with the increase in tempera-
ture. At low temperature, resistivity increases at a higher power of T.
As  R. Therefore,  = 0 [1 + r(T – T0)]
where  and 0 are the resistivity at temperature T and T0, respectively and r is
known as temperature coefficient of resistivity.
  0 d 1
or r   .
0 (T  T0 ) 0 dT
Thus, we may define r as the fractional change in resistivity per unit change in
temperature.
For conductors: The value of r is positive that is, their resistivity increases with rise
in temperature. In metals, the resistivity increases linearly with temperature up to
about 500ºC above the room temperature. The figure shown below shows the varia-
P – [54]
tion of resistivity with temperature. The graph is a straight line over a limited range of
temperature. Point Q on a linear portion of the graph corresponding to temperature
273 K is considered as reference point and corresponding resistivity is 0.
Fig. 2.7. Variation of resistivity with temperature in copper.
(ii) Semiconductors: For semiconductors r is negative. It implies that resistivity of semi-

conductor decreases with rise in temperature as shown below.
Fig. 2.8. Variation of resistivity with temperature in semiconductors
(iii) Insulators: In case of insulators, the resistivity increases nearly exponentially with
decrease in temperature.
The number density of electrons of material is
  Eg 
 
 2 kT 
n  n0 e
Therefore, the temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor and insulator
is given by
Eg
  0 e 2 kT .... (i)
where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10–23 J mole–1 K–1.

T = Absolute temperature
Eg = Energy gap between conduction band and valence band
The value of Eg can vary from nearly zero for conductors to several electron volts for
insulators. The classification of non-conducting materials into insulators and semicon-
ductors depends upon the size of energy band gap (Eg).
P – [55]
The material, for which Eg 1 eV, resistivity at room temperature will not be so high.
Such materials are called semiconductors. The material for which Eg  1 eV, resistiv-
ity at room temperature will be very high and such substances are called insulators.
From equation (i) it follows that  = , when T = 0 K, i.e. insulators are substances
whose resistance become infinite at T = 0 K. Some semiconductors also show this
behaviour. It is to be noted that the value of electrical resistivity is very low for con-
ductors, very high for insulators and for semiconductors it lies in between those of
conductors and insulators.
Example: 2.4
Find the relaxation time for free electrons in copper, if the density of mobile electron is
8.4 × 1028 m–3. The resistivity of copper at room temperature is 1.7 × 10 –8 m. Given : mass of
electron = 9.11 × 10–31 kg and charge on electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C.
Solution :
Here, n = 8.4 × 1028 m–3;
 = 1.7 × 10–8 m;
m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg;
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C; r = ?
m
We know that,  2
e n
m
or  2
e n
9.11  1031
  2.49  1014 s.
(1.6  1019 ) 2  8.4  1028  1.7  108
2.7 CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance of conductor is called its conductance. It is denoted by G. Thus, the
conductance of a conductor having resistance R is given by
1
G
R
SI unit of conductance is ohm–1(–1) or mho ( ) or Siemen (S).
2.8 CONDUCTIVITY
The reciprocal of resistivity of conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted by .
1
Thus,  

SI unit of conductivity is (ohm-m)–1 or (-m)–1 or mho metre–1.
P – [56]
2.9 RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY J, CONDUCTIVITY

 AND ELECTRIC FIELD E
2
 eE  nAe E
Current I = nAevd  nAe    
m  m
I ne 2 E
or 
A m
I m
Since J  and   2
A ne 
E
Therefore, J 

1
Also, conductivity  

Therefore, J = E
2.10 COLOUR CODING FOR CARBON RESISTANCE
Fig. 2.9. Carbon resistor
Resistors are colour coded in order to find their resistance easily. To determine the value of a given
resistor look for the gold or silver tolerance band and rotate the resistor as in the above figure
(Tolerance band to the right). Look at the first colour band and determine its colour. This may be
difficult on small or oddly coloured resistors. Now look at the chart and match the “First colour
band” to the “Digit it represents”. Write down this number. It will be the first significant digit.
Now look at the “Second colour band” and match that colour to the same chart. Write this number
next to the first significant digit.
After this, match the “Third colour band” with the chart under multiplier. It indicates the decimal
multiplier i.e., the number of zeros that will follow after two significant digits. The color of forth
band indicates the tolerance limit of the resistance value.
To put it all together now, simply multiply the two digit number (first number in the ten’s column and
second in the one’s column) by the multiplier. The following sentence aids to remember the value of
a carbon resistance through colour code:
B B ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife. In which bold letters refer to a particular colour as what
shown in the chart.
P – [57]
Table 2.1
The colour code for the carbon resistance
The colour code for the carbon resistance
2.10.1 Tolerance Explanation

Resistors are never the exact values that the colour codes indicate. Therefore manufactur-
ers place a tolerance colour band on the resistor to tell you just how accurate this resistor is
made. It is simply a measurement of the imperfections. Gold means the resistor is within
5% of being dead – on accurate. Silver has a tolerance within 10% and no colour band
being within 20%. To determine the exact range that the resistor may be, take the value of
the resistor and multiply it by 5%, 10%, or 20%. That is, tolerance is the number that the
resistor may go either way.
Example : 2.5
Find the resistance of given carbon resistor :
Fig. E2.1. Schematic representation of colour coding in carbon resistor
Solution :
First colour is red which is 2
Second colour is black which is 0
Third colour is yellow which is 10,000
Tolerance is silver which is 10%
Therefore the resistance is (20 × 10,000) ± 10%  or simply 200 k
P – [58]
2.11 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Fig. 2.10. Variation of resistivity with temperature in Mercury
Superconductivity is the phenomenon of abnormally high electrical conductivity of certain sub-

stances. Kamerlingh Onnes discovered this phenomenon in 1911. He found that the resistance of
mercury dropped suddenly to zero at a temperature of about 4.2 K, which is the critical temperature
of Mercury. Critical temperature is different for different materials. At this point, material behaves
as a superconductor and there is no resistance to the flow of electrons. For the next 75 years there
followed a rather steady string of announcements of new materials that become superconducting
near absolute zero. A major breakthrough occurred in 1986 when Karl Alexander Muller and J.
George Bednorz announced that they had discovered a new class of copper oxide materials that
become superconducting at temperatures exceeding 70oC. The work of Muller and Bednorz, which
earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1987, precipitated a host of discoveries of other high-
temperature superconductors that exhibit loss less electrical flow at temperatures up to 125oC.
Classical superconductivity (superconductivity at temperatures near absolute zero) is displayed by
some metals, including zinc, magnesium, lead, gray tin, aluminium, mercury, and cadmium. Other
metals, such as molybdenum, may exhibit superconductivity after high purification. Alloys (e.g. two
parts of gold to one part of bismuth) and such compounds as tungsten carbide and lead sulphide may
also be superconductors. Thin films of normal metals and superconductors that are brought into
contact can form superconducting electronic devices, which replace transistors in some applica-
tions. An interesting aspect of the phenomenon is the continued flow of current in a superconducting
circuit after the source of current has been shut off: for example, if a lead ring is immersed in liquid
helium, an electric current that is induced magnetically will continue to flow after the removal of the
magnetic field. Powerful electromagnets, which, once energized, retain magnetism virtually indefi-
nitely, have been developed using several superconductors. The 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics was
awarded to J. Bardeen, L. Cooper, and S. Schrieffer for their theory (known as the BCS theory) of
classical superconductors. This quantum-mechanical theory proposes that at very low tempera-
tures electrons in an electric current move in pairs. Such pairing enables them to move through a
crystal lattice without having their motion disrupted by collisions with the lattice. Several theories of
high-temperature superconductors have been proposed, but none has been experimentally con-
firmed.
Scientists all over the world are trying to achieve superconductivity at room temperature. In case,
such an achievement is made, it will be possible to
(i) Transmit electrical power over super conducting cables without any loss of power across the
transmission lines.
(ii) Produce and maintain very high magnetic fields without the usual expenditure of megawatts
of power.
(iii) Produce very high-speed computers, etc.
P – [59]
2.12 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE

CELL
When no current is drawn from the cell, the potential difference between the two poles of the cell
in an open circuit is called the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. Due to its emf, a cell drives the
charge round the circuit, even from lower potential to the higher potential. Therefore, emf of a cell
is also defined as the energy supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge round the complete circuit.
The SI unit of emf is volt or joule per coulomb. The emf of a cell is called one volt, if the cell
performs one joule of work to drive one coulomb of charge round the circuit. The rate of flow of
charge is termed as current. The conventional current flows from positive to negative pole of the
cell in the external circuit and the negative pole to the positive pole through the cell. When the
current flows through the cell, its electrolyte offers resistance to the flow of current, known as
internal resistance. So, we can say energy supplied to circulate q charge
(W) = Energy lost in the external circuit (I2 Rt) + Energy lost internally in the device (I2 rt)
Where R is the resistance in the circuit, I is the current flowing through resistor R due to cell and r
is the internal resistance of the cell.
2.13.1 Internal Resistance of Cell
When the electric current flows through the cell, the resistance offered by the electrolyte
of the cell is known as internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r. Internal resistance
of a cell can be measured by potentiometer. For a new cell, the value of internal resistance
is very low but as the cell is put to more use, its internal resistance goes on increasing. The
internal resistance of a cell depends upon
(i) the distance between the electrodes
(ii) the nature of the electrolyte
(iii) the nature of electrodes
(iv) the area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte. The internal resistance of the
cell is inversionally proportional to the area of the electrodes, i.e. if area is increased,
internal resistance will decrease.
Terminal potential difference of a cell is the potential difference between the two elec-
trodes or poles of a cell in a close circuit, i.e. when current is drawn from the cell and is
generally represented by V. The SI unit of terminal potential difference is volt.
Due to flow of electric current in a closed circuit, there occurs a potential drop across the
internal resistance of a cell. So, we can say that the terminal potential difference between
the two electrodes of a cell is less than the emf of a cell by an amount equal to potential
drop across the internal resistance of the cell.
Consider a circuit of resistance R ohms to be connected across a cell having an internal
resistance r ohm as shown in the figure below. Let the current be I amperes, then Potential
drop across R = IR volt.
Potential drop across r = Ir volt. And total power dissipated in R and r = I2(R + r) watt
The emf of the cell is responsible for maintaining the electric current in the circuit; and the
value of the emf E must be the same that electrical power generated by the chemical action
in the cell.
P – [60]
Fig. 2.11. Circuit diagram to determine internal resistance

2
i.e. IE = I (R + r)
Therefore, E = I (R + r) ...(i)
It follows that the potential difference V volts, across terminals TT shown in figure above is
given by
V = IR ...(ii)
V = E – Ir
E V
or r ... (iii)
l
 E V 
or r   R
 V 
2.13 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Most electrical circuits consist not merely of a single source and a single external resistor, but
comprise a number of sources, resistors or other elements such as capacitors, motors, etc.
2.13.1 Resistors in Series
Fig. 2.12. Circuit diagram of resistances in series
Here the resistors provide only a single path between the points, and are thus said to be
connected in series between these points. The current is same in each element, i.e. the
resistors.
A battery is connected across the series combination. V1 , V2 and V3 are the values of
potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 respectively, then
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ... (i)
Also, V = equivalent potential difference = V1 + V2 + V3 ...(ii)
It is always possible to find a single resistor that could replace a combination of resistors in
any given circuit and leave unaltered the potential difference between the terminals of the
combination and the current in the rest of the circuit. The resistance of this single resistor is
called the equivalent resistance of the combination. If the resistors in the above figure were
replaced by their equivalent resistance R, we could write
P – [61]
V = IR ...(iii)
V
or R ... (iv)
I
where V is the potential difference between the end terminals of the network and I is the
current flowing in the circuit.
From equations (i) and (ii),
V = I(R1 + R2 + R3) ... (v)
V
or  ( R1  R2  R3 ) ... (vi)
I
From equations (iv) and (vi),
R = R1 + R2 + R3 ...(vii)
i.e. the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of their
individual resistances.
2.13.2 Resistors in Parallel
Fig. 2.13. Circuit diagram of resistances in parallel
Here the resistors are said to be in parallel between points as each resistor provides an
alternative path between the end points. So we can say that two or more resistances are
connected in parallel, if potential difference across each of them is equal to the applied
potential difference. The above figure shows the combination of three resistors R1, R2 and
R3 in parallel. Since the resistors are in parallel, the potential difference between the termi-
nals of each must be the same and equal to say V. If the currents in each are denoted by I1,
I2 and I3, respectively, then
V V V
I1  , I2  , I3  ... (viii)
R1 R2 R3
Since charge is not accumulating at any point, it follows that

I = I1 + I2 + I3 ... (ix)
Substituting the values of I1, I2 and I3 from (viii) into (ix)
1 1 1 
I V     ... (x)
 R1 R2 R3 
I 1 1 1
or    ... (xi)
V R1 R2 R3
P – [62]
But according to Ohm’s law
I 1
 where R = Resultant resistance of the circuit ...(xii)
V R
From equations (xi) and (xii)
1 1 1 1
   ... (xiii)
R R1 R2 R3
For any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance equals
the sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.
Example: 2.6
Determine the equivalent resistance of the following network :
Fig. E 2.2.
Solution :
The given network is a series combination of 4 equal units. Each unit has 4 resistances in which, 2
resistances (1 each in series) are in parallel with 2 other resistances (2 each in series).
 Effective resistance of two resistances (each of 1) in series = 1 + 1 = 2
Effective resistance of two resistances (each of 2) in series = 2 + 2 = 4
If Rp is the resistance of one unit of resistances, then
1 1 1 3 4
   or R p  
Rp 2 4 4 3
 Total resistance of net work (4 such units)
4 16
  4    5.33
3 3
Example: 2.7
Given the three resistances of 1, 2, 3, how will you combine them to get an equivalent resistance
11 11 6
of (a)  , (b)  , (c) 6 , (d)  ?
3 5 11
Solution :
It is to be noted that (a) the effective resistance of parallel combination of resistors is less than the
individual resistance and (b) the effective resistance of series combination of resistors is more than individual
resistance.
Case (a) Parallel combination of 1 and 2 is connected in series with 3
Effective resistance of 1 and 2 in parallel will be given by
1 2 2
Rp   
1 2 3
2 2 11
 Equivalent resistance of  and 3 in series =  3  
3 3 3
P – [63]
Case (b) Parallel combination of 2 and 3 is connected in series with 1
23 6
Equivalent resistance of 2 and 3 in parallel =  
23 5
6 6 11
Equivalent resistance of  and 1 in series =  1  
5 5 5
Case (c) All the resistances are to be connected in series. Now
 Equivalent resistance = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
Case (d) All the resistance are to be connected in parallel
 Equivalent resistance (R) is given by
1 1 1 1 6  3  2 11
    
R 1 2 3 6 6
6
or R 
11
2.14 GROUPING OF CELLS

There are generally three types of groupings of the cells:
2.14.1 Cells in Series
In this case the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
second, whose positive terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the third cell and
so on.
Fig. 2.14. Circuit diagram of cells in series
Here, the external resistor is connected to the free terminals of the first and the last cells.
Let n identical cells be connected in series; each of emf E and internal resistance r. Let R
be the resistance of external resistor. Since the cells are connected in series, total internal
resistance of all the cells = nr.
Total resistance of the circuit = external resistance of the circuit + total internal resistance
of the cells, i.e. R + nr (as R and nr are connected in series).
Total emf of the cells = nE. Therefore, current in the external resistance R is given by
nE
I ... (i)
R  nr
P – [64]
Few special cases :

If R >> nr. In this case, nr can be neglected as compared to R. Then, equation (i) becomes
nE
I ... (ii)
R
i.e. the current in the external resistance is n times the current due to a single cell.
R << nr. In this case, R can be neglected as compared to nr. Then, equation (i) becomes
nE E
I  ... (iii)
nr r
i.e. the current in the external resistance is same as due to a single cell. From the above
equations we can conclude that the maximum current can be drawn from the series com-
bination of cells if the external resistance is very high as compared to the internal resistance
of the cells.
2.14.2 Cells in Parallel
In this case the positive terminals of all the cells are connected together at one point say P
while their negative terminals at another point say Q.
Fig. 2.15. Circuit diagram of cells in parallel
Again let us consider n identical cells are connected in parallel, each of emf E and internal
resistance r. let R be the resistance of external resistor. Since the internal resistances of all
the cells are connected in parallel, their total internal resistance rp is given by
1 1 1 1
     upto n terms  n
rp r r r r
r
or rp 
n
r
Therefore, total resistance in the circuit = R 
n
Current in the resistance R is given by
E nE
I 
r nR  r ... (i)
R
n
P – [65]
Some special cases:

If R << r. In this case, nR can be neglected as compared to r. Then, the above equation
becomes
nE
I ... (ii)
r
i.e. the current in the external resistance is n times the current due to a single cell.
If r << R. In this case, r can be neglected as compared to nR. Then, the equation becomes
nE E
I  ... (iii)
nR R
i.e. the current in the external resistance is same as due to a single cell. From the above
equations, we can conclude that the maximum current can be drawn from the parallel
combination of cells if the external resistance is very low as compared to the internal
resistance of the cells.
2.14.3 Cells in Mixed Grouping
In this case a set of cells connected in series are again connected in parallel to another set
of cells (which are again in series).
Fig. 2.16. Circuit diagram of cells in mixed group
Again let us consider n cells are connected in series in one row and m rows of cells are
connected in parallel. Let us suppose that all the cells are identical having emf E and
internal resistance r.
For each row, since the cells are connected in series, the total internal resistance = nr.
The total emf = nE. Since there are m rows of cells in parallel, the total internal resistance
of the circuit rp is given by
1 1 1 1
     upto m terms = m
rp nr nr nr nr
nr
or rp 
m
nr
Therefore, the total resistance of the circuit R 
m
P – [66]
The parallel combination of cells does not affect the emf of the cell but simply increase the
sizes of the electrodes, therefore
Effective emf of the cell = nE
Therefore, the current in the external resistance R is given by
nE mnE
I 
nr mR  nr
R
m
Mathematically, (with the help of differential equations) it can be shown that mR + nr is
minimum for mR = nr.
nr
or R
m
i.e. external resistance = total internal resistance of all the cells. Therefore, we get the
maximum current in mixed grouping of cells if the value of external resistance is equal to
the total internal resistance of all the cells.
Example: 2.8
A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor ? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when
the circuit is closed ?
Solution :
Here, E = 10 V; r = 3;
I = 0.5 A; R = ?; V = ?
I = E/(R + r)
or R + r = E / I = 10/0.5 = 20
or R = 20 – r = 20 – 3 = 17 
Terminal voltage,
V = IR = 0.5 × 17 = 8.5 V.
Example: 2.9
(a) Three resistors 1, 2, and 3 are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination ?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12V and negligible internal resistance, obtain
the potential drop across each resistor.
Solution :
(a) Here, R1 = 1; R2 = 2
R3 = 3; V = 12 V
In series, total resistance
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
(b) Current through the circuit,
I = V / Rs = 12/6 = 2A
 Potential drop across R1 = I R1 = 2 × 1 = 2 V
Potential drop across R2 = I R2 = 2 × 2 = 4 V
Potential drop across R3 = I R3 = 2 × 3 = 6 V
P – [67]
Example: 2.10
A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance of 0.5  is being charged by a 120 V d.c.
supply using a series resistor of 15.5 . What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging ? What
is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit ?
Solution :
Here, e.m.f. of the battery = 8.0 V;
Voltage of d.c. supply = 120 V
Internal resistance of battery, r = 0.5 ;
External resistance, R = 15.5 
Since a storage battery of e.m.f. 8 V is charged with a d.c. supply of 120 V, the effective e.m.f. in
the circuit is given by
E = 120 – 8 = 112 V
Total resistance of the circuit = R + r = 15.5 + 0.5 = 16.0 
 Current in the circuit during charging is given by
E 112
I   7.0 A
R  r 16
 Voltage across R = IR = 7.0 × 15.5 = 108.5 V
During charging, the voltage of the d.c. supply in a circuit must be equal to the sum of the voltage
drop across R and terminal voltage of the battery
 120 = 108.5 + V
or V = 120 – 108.5 = 11.5 V
The series resistor limits the current drawn from the external source of d.c. supply. In its absence
the current will be dangerously high.
2.15 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Ohm’s law is useful for analysing simple electrical circuits only. To study complicated circuits con-
taining more than one source of emf, Kirchhoff put forward the following two laws in 1842.
Before going to the Kirchhoff’s laws, let us first define two terms. A node in a network is a point
where three or more conductors are joined. A loop is any closed conducting path.
2.15.1 First Law or Junction Law
It states, “In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point (or
junction) is zero.” The total current flowing towards a node (junction) is equal to the total
current flowing away from that node, i.e. the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a
node is zero. The first law is simply a statement of the conservation of charge.
Fig. 2.17. Circuit diagram illustrating Junction Law
P – [68]
The five currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 carry charge either towards junction O or away from it.
Charge does not accumulate at junction O, nor does it drain away from this junction be-
cause the circuit is in a steady-state condition. Thus, charge must be removed from the
junction by the currents at the same rate that it is brought into it. If we arbitrarily call a
current approaching the junction positive and the one leaving the junction negative, then
I1 + (–I2) + (–I3) + I4 + (–I5) = 0
or I1 – I2 – I3 + I4 – I5 = 0
or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
or I = 0
or Incoming current = Outgoing current
2.15.2 Second Law or Loop Law
It states, “In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of the current and the
resistance in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus sum of
emfs in that path is equal to zero.” This law is simply the consequence of the law of
conservation of energy.
In other words, IR + emf = 0
Fig. 2.18. Circuit diagram illustrating Loop rule
Example: 2.11
Determine the current in each branch of the following network (Figure below).
Solution :
According to Kirchhoff’s second law,
In a closed circuit EABCE;
–10 + 10 (i1 + i2) + 10i1 + 5(i1 – i3) = 0
or 10 = 25 i1 + 10 i2 – 5i3
or 2 = 5i1 + 2i2 – i3
In a closed circuit ABDA;
10i1 + 5i3 – 5i2 = 0 ... (i)
or 2i1 + i3 – i2 = 0
or i2 = 2i1 + i3 ... (ii)
Fig.E2.3
2.16 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit for the precise comparison of resistances. Sir Charles
Wheatstone is most famous for this device but never claimed to have invented it - however, he did
more than anyone else to invent uses for it, when he ‘found’ the description of the device in 1843.
P – [69]
The first description of the bridge was by Samuel Hunter Christie (1784-1865) in 1833.
Circuit diagram
The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical bridge circuit used to measure resistance. It consists of a
common source of electrical current (such as a battery) E, K1 between the points A and C, tapping
key K2 between the points B and D and a galvanometer G, that connects two parallel branches,
containing four resistors P, Q, R and S, three of which are known.
Fig. 2.19. Wheatstone bridge
One parallel branch contains one known resistance and an unknown; the other parallel branch
contains resistors of known resistances. In order to determine the resistance of the unknown resis-
tor, the resistances of the other three are adjusted and balanced until the current passing through the
galvanometer decreases to zero. On closing K1 first and K2 later on, if galvanometer shows no
deflection then the bridge is balanced. In that case
P R
 ... (i)
Q S
Proof of balanced state condition
Suppose I be the total current given out by the cell E. On reaching the point A, it is divided into two
parts: I1 is flowing through P and (I – I1) through R. At B, the current I1 is dividend into two parts, Ig
through the galvanometer G and (I1 – Ig) through Q. The current through arm BD and (I – I1)
through AD, combine to send a current (I – I1 + Ig) through S. On reaching the point C, the current
through BC and through DC combine to give total current I, thus completing the circuit. However,
the values of the currents at a junction can be verified by Kirchhoff's first law at that junction.
Now, by using Kirchhoff's second law to the closed circuit ABDA, we can write
I1 P  IgG  ( I  I1 ) R  0 ...(ii)
where G is the resistance of galvanometer. Again applying Kirchhoff's second law to the closed
circuit BCDB, we can write
(I1 – Ig)Q – (I – l1 + Ig)S – Ig G = 0 ...(iii)
The value of R is adjusted such that the galvanometer shows no deflection i.e. Ig = 0. Now, the
bridge is balanced. Substituting Ig = 0 in equations (ii) and (iii), we get
I1P – (I – I1) × R = 0
or I1P = (I – I1)R ...(iv)
and I1Q – (I – I1)S = 0
P – [70]
or I1Q = (I – I1)S ...(v)

Dividing equation (iv) by (v)
P R

Q S
The Wheatstone bridge is well suited also for the measurement of small changes of a resistance
and, therefore, is also suitable to measure the resistance change in a strain gauge. It is commonly
known that the strain gauge transforms strain applied to it into a proportional change of resistance.
It is widely used across industry even today.
2.17 SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE / METRE BRIDGE
Slide Wire Bridge can be realized as a practical form of Wheatstone bridge. It consists of a wire AC
of constantan or manganin of one metre length and of uniform cross-sectional area. It is stretched
between the copper strips on a horizontal wooden board. Parallel to the length of wire, a metre scale
is also fitted on the wooden board. Another copper strip is fitted on the wooden board to provide two
gaps in the strip. Across one gap, a resistance box R and in another gap the unknown resistance X
are connected. One terminal of galvanometer G is connected to jockey B and another terminal to
the terminal D. The positive terminal of the battery E is connected to the terminal A and the negative
terminal battery to terminal C through one-way key K. This circuit represents the Wheatstone
bridge.
Fig. 2.20. Salt wire bridge
Key K is closed. Adjust the known resistance box for a suitable resistance R and adjust the position
of jockey on the wire (let at B) where on pressing, galvanometer shows zero deflection. The length
AB (= l) of the wire is noted. Also, note the length BC (=100 – l) of the wire. As the bridge is
balanced, then according to Wheatstone bridge principle
P R

Q S
In this case, P = Resistance of the length (l) of the wire = l r
Q = Resistance of the length (100 – l) of the wire = (100 – l) × r
Where r is the resistance per centimetre length of the wire.
Ir R
Therefore, (100  l ) r  S
 100  1 
or, S    R
 l 
Hence, by knowing the value of length l and resistance R, S can be determined.
P – [71]
Example: 2.12
(a) In a metre bridge, the balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the left end A, if an unknown
resistor X is in the left gap and a known resistor Y of resistance 12.5  is in the right gap. Determine the
resistance of X. Why are the connections between resistors in a wheatstone or metre bridge made of thick
copper strips ?
(b) Determine the balance point of the above bridge if X and Y are interchanged ?
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge?
Would the galvanometer show any current ?
Solution :
(a) Here, l = 39.5 cm;
R = X = ?; S = Y = 12.5 
100  l
As S R
l
100  39.5
 12.5  X
39.5
12.5  39.5
or X   8.16 
60.5
Thick copper strips are used to minimise resistance of the connections which are not accounted
in the formula.
(b) If X and Y are interchanged, then
R = Y = 12.5 ;
S = X = 8.16 , l = ?
 100  l 
As X    R
 l 
 100  l 
 8.16     12.5
 l 
or 8.16 l = 100 × 12.5 – 12.5 l
or 8.16 l + 12.5 l = 100 × 12.5
or 20.66 l = 1250
1250
or l   60.5 cm
20.66
(c) The galvanometer will show no current
2.18 POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer consists of a long uniform wire generally made of manganin or constantan, stretched
on a wooden board (or there are four or more wires, each one meter long, fixed, parallel to one
another and connected in series by thick copper strips). Its ends are connected to the binding
screws A and B. A meter scale S is fixed on the board parallel to the length of the wire. The
potentiometer is provided with a jockey with the help of which the contact can be made at any point
on the wire. A battery E (called driving cell), connected across A and B sends the current through
the wire, which is kept constant by using a rheostat Rh.
P – [72]
Fig. 2.21. Potentiometer

Principle
The working of a potentiometer is based on the fact that the fall of potential across any portion of
the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided the wire is of uniform area of
cross-section and a constant current is flowing through it.
Consider A and  be the area of cross-section and specific resistance of the material of the wire.
Also V be the potential difference across the portion of the wire of length l whose resistance is R.
If l is the current flowing through the wire, then according to Ohm’s law, V = IR.
1
As R  
A
1
Therefore, V  I   KI
A
I
where, K 
A
If I and A are constant
Then, V  I
V
where  K = potential gradient, the fall of potential per unit length of wire.
I
2.18.1 Comparison of EMF of Two Cells Using Potentiometer
A battery of emf E is connected between the end terminals A and B of potentiometer wire
with rheostat Rh and ammeter A connected with the potentiometer wire. This circuit is
referred to as auxiliary circuit. Two cells of emf E1 and E2 to be compared are connected
to the circuit as shown below.
Fig. 2.22. Circuit diagram for comparing the emf of two cells using potentiometer
P – [73]
As it can be seen from the figure that the positive terminals of both the cells are connected
to point A of the potentiometer. On the other hand, their negative terminals are connected to
two terminals 1 and 2 of the two-way key, whereas its common terminal 3 is connected to
jockey through a galvanometer G. Now to compare the emfs, a suitable constant current is
adjusted in the potentiometer wire with the help of rheostat. The plug is inserted in the gap
between the terminals 1 and 3 of two way key such that the cell of em E1 comes in the
picture of circuit. The position of jockey is adjusted at different points of the wire and a
point J is found so that the galvanometer does not show any deflection on pressing the
jockey there.
The length is noted as AJ (= I1) of the wire. Now, the galvanometer is showing no deflec-
tion, therefore, there is no current in the arm AE1J. It implies that the potential of positive
terminal of cell = potential of the point A, and the potential of negative terminal of cell =
potential of the point J.
Thus, the emf of the cell (=E1) is equal to the potential difference between the points A and
J of the potentiometer wire.
That is E1 = KI1 ... (i)
K being the potential gradient across the wire. Now, remove the plug from the gap between
1 and 3 and insert in the gap between 2 and 3 of the two-way key. Again, find the position
of jockey on potentiometer wire, where galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let it be at J1.
Note the length of the wire
AJ1 (= I2). Then,
E2 = KI2 ... (ii)
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) we have
E1 I1

E2 I 2
2.18.2 Measurement of Internal Resistance of a Cell by Potentiometer Method

To determine the internal resistance of a cell E using potentiometer, we will be studying the
circuit as shown below.
Fig. 2.23. Circuit diagram for measuring internal resistance
Key K is closed and a suitable constant current is maintained in the potentiometer wire with
the help of rheostat Rh. Adjust the position of jockey J at different points of the wire and
find a point J on the wire where if jockey is pressed, galvanometer shows no deflection.
Note the length AJ (= l1) of the potentiometer wire. Now, the emf of the cell E = potential
difference across the length l1 of the potentiometer wire.
P – [74]
That is, E = Kl1 ...(iii)
K being the potential gradient across the wire.
Close key K1 such that the resistance R comes in the cell circuit. Again, find the position of
the jockey on the potentiometer wire where galvanometer shows no deflection. Suppose it
be at J1. Measure the length of the wire AJ1 (= I2).
Then, potential difference between two poles of the cell, V = potential difference across
the length l1 of the potentiometer wire
i.e. V = Kl2 ...(iv)
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we get
E I1
 ... (v)
V I2
We know that the internal resistance r1 of a cell of emf E, when a resistance R is connected
in its circuit is given by
R  E  
r1  ( E  V )       1  R ...(vi)
V V  
Substituting the value from equation (v) in equation (vi), we get
 I   ( I1  I 2 )
r1   1   1  R 
 I 2   I2  R
Thus, substituting the values l1, l2 and R in above equation, the internal resistance r1 of the
cell can be determined.
Example: 2.13
In a potentiometer arrangement a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the
second cell ?
Solution :
Here, E1 = 1.25 V;
l1 = 35.0 cm; E2 = ?; l2 = 63.0 cm

E2 l2
As 
E1 l1
E1  l2 1.25  63
or E2    2.25 V
l1 35
P – [75]
Example: 2.14
The figure below shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination of internal resistance of a
1.3 V cell. The balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 W is used in the
external circuit of the cell, the balance points shifts to 64.8 cm, length of the potentiometer. Determine the
internal resistance of the cell.
Fig. E. 2.4.
Solution :
Here, l1 = 76.3 cm;
l2 = 64.8 cm;
r = ?; R = 9.5 
l l   76.3  64.8 
Now, r   1 2 R     9.5  1.68 V
 l2   64.8 

P – [76]
EXERCISE
DISCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1. A potential difference V is applied to a conductor of length L, diameter D. How are the electric field E,
the drift velocity vd and the resistance R affected when (i) V is doubled, (ii) L is doubled, (iii) D is
doubled?
2. What do you understand by electric current ? Define S.I. unit and mention the direction of electric
current in the circuit. Also explain current is a scalar or vector quantity.
3. What is drift velocity of electrons and relaxation time of free electrons in a metallic conductor carrying
current ? Establish a relation between them.
4. What do you understand by resistance of a conductor ? Define its S.I. unit. Show that resistance of a
ml
conductor is given by R  , where the symbols have their usual meanings.
ne 2 A
5. What do you understand by internal resistance and terminal potential difference of a cell ? On what
factors do they depend ?
6. Explain the various types of grouping of cells and find the condition for the maximum current in the
external resistor connected to the combination of cells (i) in series (ii) in parallel and (iii) in mixed
grouping.
7. What do you understand by sensitiveness of a potentiometer and how can you increase the sensitiveness
of a potentiometer ?
8. Explain with necessary theory of determination of internal resistance of a cell by potentiometer method.
9. Give the principle of Wheat Stone bridge. How do you use it to measure the unknown resistance ?
Explain with necessary theory.
10. What is potential gradient ? How is it measured ? Explain.
HIGH ORDER THINKING (HOTs)

1. The electron drift arises due to the force experienced by electrons in the electric field inside the conductor.
But force should cause acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a steady average drift speed ?
2. What happens to drift velocity (vd) of electrons and the resistance R if the length of a conductor is
doubled (keeping potential difference unchanged) ?
3. If the radius of the copper wire is doubled, what will be the effect on its specific resistance ?
4. A 4  non insulated resistance wire is bent in the middle by 180º and both the halves are twisted with
each other. What will be its new resistance ?
5. When cells are connected in parallel, what will be the effect on (i) current capacity, (ii) e.m.f. of the
cells.
6. A carbon resistance of 47 k is to be marked with rings of different colours for its identification. Write
the sequence of colours.
[77]
7. Find the effective resistance between points A and B of a hexagonal circuit, figure below.
8. State the basic concepts on which two Kirchhoff’s laws are based.
9. A circuit has a section ABC as shown below. If the potentials at points A, B and C are V1, V2 and V3
respectively, calculate the potential at point O.
10. Can metre bridge be used for finding resistance of (i) moderate values, (ii) high values, (iii) low values?
Explain.
NUMERICALABILITY
1. A steady beam of -particles travelling with kinetic energy E = 83.5 keV carries a current of I = 0.2
A. Mass of a-particle = 6.68 × 10–27 kg
(i) If this beam strikes a plane surface at an angle  = 60º with normal to the surface, how many -
particle strike the surface in t = 4 second ?
(ii) How many a-particles are there in length l = 20 cm of the beam ?
2. All the resistances in the diagram below are ohms. Find the effective resistance between the points A
and B.
3. A galvanometer together with an unknown resistance in series is connected across two identical batteries
each of 1.5 V. When the batteries are connected in series, the galvanometer records a current of 1 A
and when the batteries are in parallel, the current is 0.6 A. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
P – [78]
4. What is the drift velocity of electrons in a silver wire of length 1 m, having cross-sectional area 3.14 ×
10–6 m2 and carrying a current of 10 A. Given atomic weight of silver = 108, density of silver 10.5 × 103
kg/m3, charge of electron 1.6 × 10–19 C, Avogadro’s number = 6.023 × 1026 per kg. atom.
5. Calculate the relaxation time and mean free path at room temperature (i.e. 27ºC), if the number of free
electrons per unit volume is 8.5 × 1028/m3 and resistivity  = 1.7 × 10–8 -m. Given that m = 9.1 × 10–
31
kg, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C and k = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1.
6. Find the resistance between (i) A and B and (ii) A and C of the network shown below.
7. Two cells of e.m.f. 2 V and 1 V and internal resistance 1  and 2  respectively have their positive
terminals connected by a sire of 10  resistance and their negative terminals by a wire of 4  resistance.
A resistance of 10  joins the mid-points of these two wires. Calculate the current through each cell
and the potential difference between the ends of the wire.
8. Eleven equal wires each of resistance 2  forms the edges of an incomplete cube. Find the total
resistance from one end of vacant edge to the other end.
9. Figure below shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.4  maintaining a
potential drop across the resistor wire AB. A standard cell which maintains a constant e.m.f. of 1.02 V
(for very moderate currents up to a few amperes) gives a balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire.
To ensure very low currents drawn from the standard cell, a very high resistance of 600 k is put in
series with it, which is shorted close to the balance point. The standard cell is then replaced by a cell of
unknown e.m.f. E and the balance point found similarly turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
(a) What is the value of E ?

(b) What purpose does the high resistance of 600 k have ?
(c) Is the balance point affected by the high resistance ?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal resistance of the driver cell ?
(e) Would the method work in the absolute situation, if the driver of the potentiometer had on e.m.f. of
1.0 V instead of 2.0 V ?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining extremely small e.m.f. say of the order of a few mV
(such as the typical e.m.f. of a thermocouple) ?
P – [79]
10. Determine current in each branch of the network shown in figure below.
11. In a metre-bridge when a resistance in left gap is 2  and unknown resistance in right gap, the balance
point is obtained from the zero end at 40 cm on the bridge wire. On shunting the unknown resistance
with 2 , find the shift of the balance point on the bridge wire.
12. For what value of unknown resistance x, the

potential difference between B and D will be zero
in the arrangement shown in figure below.
13. The length of a potentiometer wire is 1200 cm and it carries a current of 80 mA. For a cell of emf 4.0
V and internal resistance 20 ohm, the null point is found to be at 1000 cm. If a voltmeter is connected
across the cell, the balancing length is decreased by 20 cm. Find (i) the resistance of the whole wire, (ii)
reading of the voltmeter, and (iii) resistance of voltmeter.
14. A 600 cm long potentiometer wire is connected to
the circuit as shown in figure below. The resistance
of potentiometer wire is 15 r. (a) At what distance
from the point A should the jockey touch the wire
to get zero deflection in the galvanometer ? (b) If
the jockey touches the wire at a distance of 560
cm from A, what will be the current in the
galvanometer ?
15. Cells A and B and a galvanometer G are connected

to a slide wire OS by two sliding contacts C and D
as shown in figure below. The slide wire is 100 cm
long and has a resistance of 12 . With OD = 75
cm, the galvanometer gives no deflection when OC
is 50 cm. If D is moved to touch the end of wire of
S, the value of OC for which the galvanometer
shows no deflection is 62.5 cm. The emf of cell B
is 1.0 V. Calculate (a) The potential difference
across O and D when D is at 75 cm mark from O.
(b) The potential difference across OS when D
touches S. (c) Internal resistance of cell A. (d) The
e.m.f. of cell A.

P – [80]
ANSWERS
HIGH ORDER THINKING (HOTs)
2. half, double
3. no change
4. 1
5. (i) increae, (ii) the effective emf of the cells in parallel will be equal to emf of one cell.
6. yellow, violet and orange
7. 0.5 r
1
 V1 V2 V3   1 1 1
9.       
 R1 R2 R3   R1 R2 R3 
NUMERICALABILITY
1. (i) 2.5 × 1012, (ii) 6.25 × 104
2. 2
3. 0.33 
4. 3.399 × 10–4 m/s
5. 2.46 × 10–14s, 28.7 Å
6. (i) 27.5 , (ii) 30 

14 1
7. A,  A,1.874 V
121 121
8. 2.8 
9. (a) 1.247 V
(b) The purpose of using high resistance of 600 kW is to allow very small current through galvanometer
when the movable contact is far from the balance point.
(c) No, the balance point is not affected by the presence of this resistance.
(d) No, the balance point is not affected by the internal resistance of the driver cell.
(e) No, the method will not work as the balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire if
the e.m.f. of the driver cell is less than the e.m.f. of the other cell.
(f) The circuit will not work for measuring extermely small e.m.f. because in that case, the balance
point will be ust clost to the end A.
[81]
10. I1 = 2.5 A, I2 = 1.875 A, I3 = 1.875 A
11. –22.5 cm
12. 18 
13. (i) 60 , (ii) 3.92 V, (iii) 980 
3E
14. (a) 320 cm, (b)
8r
15. (a) 1.5 V, (b) 1.6 V, (c) 3 , (d) 2 V

P – [82]

Current Electricity

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Chapter-2

2.3 CURRENT DENSITY

SI unit of current density is A m–2. Current density is a vector quantity.

Here, n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3

l = 3.0 m; A = 2.0 × 10–6 m2;

3.0  8.5  1028  2.0  106  1.6  10 19

2.5 OHM’S LAW

Fig. 2.2. Graph between voltage and current

Fig. 2.3. V - I graph of metallic conductor

Fig. 2.4. Variation of current in semiconductor diode

Fig. 2.5. Variation of current in thyristor

2.6 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR

Fig. 2.6. Symbol of resistance

2.6.2 Temperature dependence of resistance

Fig. 2.7. Variation of resistivity with temperature in copper.

(ii) Semiconductors: For semiconductors r is negative. It implies that resistivity of semi-

Fig. 2.8. Variation of resistivity with temperature in semiconductors

where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10–23 J mole–1 K–1.

2.9 RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY J, CONDUCTIVITY

2.10 COLOUR CODING FOR CARBON RESISTANCE

Fig. 2.9. Carbon resistor

2.10.1 Tolerance Explanation

Fig. E2.1. Schematic representation of colour coding in carbon resistor

Fig. 2.10. Variation of resistivity with temperature in Mercury

Superconductivity is the phenomenon of abnormally high electrical conductivity of certain sub-

2.12 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE

Fig. 2.11. Circuit diagram to determine internal resistance

Fig. 2.12. Circuit diagram of resistances in series

Fig. 2.13. Circuit diagram of resistances in parallel

Since charge is not accumulating at any point, it follows that

But according to Ohm’s law

Case (b) Parallel combination of 2 and 3 is connected in series with 1

2.14 GROUPING OF CELLS

Fig. 2.14. Circuit diagram of cells in series

Few special cases :

Fig. 2.15. Circuit diagram of cells in parallel

Some special cases:

Fig. 2.16. Circuit diagram of cells in mixed group

2.15 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Fig. 2.17. Circuit diagram illustrating Junction Law

Fig. 2.18. Circuit diagram illustrating Loop rule

2.16 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Fig. 2.19. Wheatstone bridge

or I1Q = (I – I1)S ...(v)

Fig. 2.20. Salt wire bridge

Fig. 2.21. Potentiometer

2.18.2 Measurement of Internal Resistance of a Cell by Potentiometer Method

Fig. 2.23. Circuit diagram for measuring internal resistance

That is, E = Kl1 ...(iii)

K being the potential gradient across the wire.

i.e. V = Kl2 ...(iv)

Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we get

Substituting the value from equation (v) in equation (vi), we get

l1 = 35.0 cm; E2 = ?; l2 = 63.0 cm

HIGH ORDER THINKING (HOTs)

(a) What is the value of E ?

12. For what value of unknown resistance x, the

15. Cells A and B and a galvanometer G are connected

6. yellow, violet and orange

4. 3.399 × 10–4 m/s

5. 2.46 × 10–14s, 28.7 Å

6. (i) 27.5 , (ii) 30 